American English Pronunciation - Rachel's English - Literatura em Inglês (2025)

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<p>Sold to</p><p>mkdorosh@gmail.com</p><p>2</p><p>Table of Contents</p><p>Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3</p><p>Tools for Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5</p><p>Chapter 1: Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10</p><p>Chapter 2: Introduction to Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation . . . . . 16</p><p>Chapter 3: Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22</p><p>Chapter 4: Diphthongs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60</p><p>Chapter 5: Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79</p><p>Chapter 6: Consonant Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134</p><p>Chapter 7: Rhythm and Intonation: Multi-Syllable Words . . . . . 145</p><p>Chapter 8: Linking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161</p><p>Chapter 9: Rhythm and Intonation: Stressed Words . . . . . . . 169</p><p>Chapter 10: Unstressed Words and Words that Reduce . . . . . . 179</p><p>Chapter 11: Contractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197</p><p>Chapter 12: Gonna, Wanna, Gotta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214</p><p>Chapter 13: Putting it all Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221</p><p>Chapter 14: Continuing to Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253</p><p>Appendix 1: Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257</p><p>Appendix 2: Video Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268</p><p>Appendix 3: Audio Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275</p><p>Appendix 4: Sound Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281</p><p>This material is copyrighted by Rachel's English LLC, 2015.</p><p>Please do not copy or distribute this file.</p><p>3</p><p>Introduction</p><p>I’ve been creating accent reduction videos on YouTube for over six years.</p><p>During that time I’ve gotten requests for a book. I always resisted because my</p><p>ideas on pronunciation and how to teach it are always evolving, thanks to what I</p><p>learn from teaching. I’m still not done learning. Hopefully I’ll never be! But I</p><p>started to see the importance of writing a book for organizing my thoughts on</p><p>pronunciation, and setting up a structure for study. Many people find a video</p><p>through search and don’t have any idea how it fits into the bigger picture of</p><p>American English and accent reduction.</p><p>This book presents the ‘big picture’ of American English pronunciation as I see it.</p><p>It is broad, but not deep. I look forward to completing other books, videos, and</p><p>courses in the future that will go deep, that will elaborate upon the groundwork</p><p>presented in this book.</p><p>As I’ve been exploring pronunciation, one thing that initially surprised me was</p><p>how much opinion comes into play. There are teachers I respect who have</p><p>different ideas than I do about how something should be pronounced, and how it</p><p>should be taught. There is no one right way to speak English, or to teach it to</p><p>non-native speakers. Truly, this is Rachel’s English. This is my way of teaching</p><p>how I talk, as clearly and methodically as possible.</p><p>In school, I did not study how to teach English, or pronunciation, or any foreign</p><p>language. I did not study linguistics. I did not study how to teach anybody</p><p>anything. I studied Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, and Music (vocal</p><p>and opera performance). As I became interested in how Americans speak, and</p><p>how to teach that, while living in Germany, I came to realize that what I studied</p><p>was actually very significant. What I have developed in Rachel’s English and this</p><p>book comes directly from those fields of study: from singing, increased body and</p><p>voice awareness, connection to rhythm and melody, a keen ear and the ability to</p><p>imitate. From applied mathematics and computer science: a linear and modular</p><p>mind, able to break down my vocal awareness into small, teachable chunks.</p><p>Developing Rachel’s English, from the beginning, has been about experience</p><p>and first-hand investigation more than book learning. This book is written only to</p><p>support practical experience, perhaps in ways that are sometimes</p><p>unconventional. I hope something in it will help you communicate more</p><p>effectively and confidently in English.</p><p>What are the most important things about this book? Learning pronunciation</p><p>concepts together. Most books and resources will teach sounds separate from</p><p>4</p><p>rhythm and intonation. But we never use sounds by themselves. They are</p><p>always a part of words and sentences, where we cannot ignore rhythm and</p><p>intonation. So when you learn a sound in this book, you’ll learn what it sounds</p><p>like in stressed and unstressed syllables. You’ll always be addressing the overall</p><p>character, no matter what detail you’re learning.</p><p>5</p><p>Tools for Learning</p><p>Before you start, get to know what tools you’ll find for learning in this book.</p><p>PICTURES</p><p>There are several color photos in this book. If your device does not display the</p><p>photos well, consider using an alternative.</p><p>These photos will help you understand what’s going on inside the mouth for the</p><p>sounds of American English. Each photo shows:</p><p>1. The throat. It should stay open and relaxed most of the time, and the neck</p><p>muscles too.</p><p>2. The tongue. This amazing muscular structure can flip up, down, stick way</p><p>out—we want this muscle to be relaxed so it can move easily.</p><p>3. The teeth. I draw in the top and bottom front teeth, and the top teeth on the</p><p>far side of the face.</p><p>4. The hard and soft palate. The hard palate, or roof of the mouth, is in the</p><p>front half of the mouth, and the soft palate is back towards the throat. The</p><p>soft palate closes (by lifting) for all sounds in American English except for</p><p>three consonant sounds: N [n], M [m], and NG [ŋ]. This is means American</p><p>English has no nasal vowels. This can be hard for students whose native</p><p>languages have nasal vowels like Bengali, French, Haitian Creole, Hindi,</p><p>Hmong, Mandarin, Nepali, and Polish to name a few.</p><p>6</p><p>SYMBOLS</p><p>You will see symbols like ʌ ŋ ð. These are the symbols of the International</p><p>Phonetic Alphabet. It is very important to know from the beginning that English</p><p>is not a phonetic language. This means there is not a direct relationship</p><p>between the letters and the sounds. You can’t look at a word and know how to</p><p>pronounce it; you can’t hear a word and know how to spell it. One letter does not</p><p>correspond to one sound. For example, the letter A is pronounced differently in</p><p>these three words:</p><p>exact [ɪgˈzæct] — here, it is the [æ] vowel</p><p>father [ˈfɑð əәɹ] — here, it is the [ɑ] vowel</p><p>about [əәˈbaʊt] — here, it is the [əә] vowel</p><p>For many more examples, check out the Sound Chart Appendix. For people</p><p>whose native language is phonetic, this is very annoying. I apologize on behalf</p><p>of the English language! It certainly makes it harder to learn. Even native</p><p>speakers of English sometimes have to look up the pronunciation or spelling of a</p><p>word.</p><p>Luckily, the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) is here to help. Rather than</p><p>relying on a letter to represent a sound, experts have come up with a unique</p><p>symbol for each sound. You will see me use these symbols in my videos and</p><p>this book. To introduce yourself to these symbols, watch these videos:</p><p>Video 0.1 — The IPA: Vowels</p><p>This video goes over the vowel sounds of American English</p><p>with sample words. Pay special attention to the IPA symbol</p><p>for each sound. engl.io/aac</p><p>Video 0.2 —The IPA: Diphthongs</p><p>This video goes over the diphthong sounds of American</p><p>English with sample words. Pay special attention</p><p>oʊ] Unstressed</p><p>Audio 4.2 — The OH as in NO [oʊ] Diphthong</p><p>engl.io/ahf</p><p>When students don’t round their lips enough, this diphthong can sound like the</p><p>AW as in LAW [ɔ] or AH as in FATHER [ɑ] vowel instead. Work with the</p><p>following audio file and take your time rounding your lips. Slow it down.</p><p>Remember, it’s the movement of rounding the lips that defines this diphthong.</p><p>Exaggerate it a little bit.</p><p>http://engl.io/ahd</p><p>http://engl.io/ahf</p><p>63</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.3 — OH [oʊ] vs. AW [ɔ] or AH [ɑ].</p><p>Remember, if you can’t hear the difference, don’t panic. Listen several times a</p><p>day for several days in a row. Practice with the two different mouth positions:</p><p>unmoving for the vowel, moving for the diphthong. What you hear on the file is</p><p>organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Stressed or Unstressed?</p><p>aw [ɔ], oh [oʊ] Stressed</p><p>nod [nɑd], node [noʊd] Stressed</p><p>ball [bɔl], bowl [boʊl] Stressed</p><p>called [kɔld], cold [koʊld] Stressed</p><p>mop [mɑp], mope [moʊp] Stressed</p><p>Audio 4.3 — OH [oʊ] vs. AW [ɔ] or AH [ɑ]</p><p>engl.io/ahg</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 4.4 — OH [oʊ] vs. AW [ɔ] or AH [ɑ] Test.</p><p>You’ll hear five words or sounds in the minimal pairs below. You’re only hearing</p><p>one of the words (you’ll hear it twice), which one is it? Answers in the Answers</p><p>Appendix.</p><p>http://engl.io/ahg</p><p>64</p><p>Audio 4.4 — OH [oʊ] vs. AW [ɔ] or AH [ɑ] Test</p><p>1. [oʊ] or [ɔ]</p><p>2. toad [oʊ] or Todd [ɑ]</p><p>3. taupe [oʊ] or top [ɑ]</p><p>4. boast [oʊ] or bossed [ɔ]</p><p>5. toast [oʊ] or tossed [ɔ]</p><p>engl.io/ahj</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>o: go [goʊ]</p><p>oo: brooch [bɹoʊʧ]</p><p>ou: soul [soʊl]</p><p>ow: row [ɹoʊ]</p><p>oa: oat [oʊt]</p><p>oe: foe [foʊ]</p><p>ough: though [ðoʊ]</p><p>au: chauffeur [ˈʃoʊ fəәɹ]</p><p>eau: beau [boʊ]</p><p>[aʊ] – The OW as in NOW Diphthong</p><p>http://engl.io/ahj</p><p>65</p><p>The beginning position of this diphthong, [a], is not a vowel in American English.</p><p>It is similar to the AA as in BAT [æ] vowel. Unlike the OH as in NO diphthong,</p><p>the lips should not round at all for the beginning of this sound. You can think of</p><p>the shape of the mouth as a rectangle rather than a circle. Drop your jaw, the</p><p>tongue will be wide and flat. Just like the OH as in NO above, move positions by</p><p>rounding the lips, relaxing the jaw up, and lifting the back of the tongue.</p><p>Video 4.2 — The OW as in NOW [aʊ] Diphthong</p><p>See illustrations of the beginning and ending positions for</p><p>this sound, as well as up-close, slow motion speech. engl.io/ahm</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.5 — The OW as in NOW [aʊ] Diphthong.</p><p>Does your jaw drop for the beginning position? Do your lips round into the</p><p>ending position? What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is [aʊ] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?</p><p>ow [aʊ] Stressed</p><p>now [naʊ] Stressed</p><p>sound [saʊnd] Stressed</p><p>power [ˈpaʊ əәɹ] Stressed</p><p>ow [aʊ], ow [aʊ] Stressed, Unstressed</p><p>letdown [ˈlɛt￨ daʊn] Unstressed</p><p>blackout [ˈblæk aʊt] Unstressed</p><p>http://engl.io/ahm</p><p>66</p><p>Audio 4.5 — The OW as in NOW [aʊ] Diphthong</p><p>engl.io/ahp</p><p>Just like the OH [oʊ] diphthong, this diphthong can sound like the AW as in LAW</p><p>[ɔ] or AH as in FATHER [ɑ] vowel instead when students don’t round their lips.</p><p>Remember, the OW [aʊ] diphthong is made by a movement, you must round</p><p>your lips to get the right sound.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.6 — OW [aʊ] vs. AW [ɔ] or AH [ɑ].</p><p>Work with these minimal pairs and take your time rounding your lips. Exaggerate</p><p>it a little bit.</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Stressed or Unstressed?</p><p>ow [aʊ], aw [ɔ] Stressed</p><p>down [daʊn], dawn [dɔn] Stressed</p><p>pound [paʊnd], pond [pɑnd] Stressed</p><p>mouse [maʊs], moss [mɔs] Stressed</p><p>spout [spaʊt], spot [spɑt] Stressed</p><p>Audio 4.6 — OW [aʊ] vs. AW [ɔ] or AH [ɑ]</p><p>engl.io/ahr</p><p>http://engl.io/ahp</p><p>http://engl.io/ahr</p><p>67</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 4.7 — OW [aʊ] vs. AW [ɔ] or AH [ɑ] Test.</p><p>You’ll hear five words or sounds in the minimal pairs below. You’re only hearing</p><p>one of the words (you’ll hear it twice), which one is it? Answers in the Answers</p><p>Appendix.</p><p>Audio 4.7 — OW [aʊ] vs. AW [ɔ] or AH [ɑ] Test</p><p>1. [aʊ] or [ɔ]</p><p>2. out [aʊ] or ought [ɔ]</p><p>3. mouth [aʊ] or moth [ɔ]</p><p>4. foul [aʊ] or fall [ɔ]</p><p>5. brown [aʊ] or brawn [ɔ]</p><p>engl.io/ahu</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>ou: round [ɹaʊnd]</p><p>ow: cow [kaʊ]</p><p>ough: bough [baʊ]</p><p>[aɪ] – The AI as in BUY Diphthong</p><p>http://engl.io/ahu</p><p>68</p><p>This diphthong has the same beginning position as the OW as in NOW [aʊ]</p><p>diphthong, but the ending position is quite different. To begin, the jaw is more</p><p>dropped, and the tongue is flatter. To end, there is no lip rounding. The corners</p><p>of the lips should be totally relaxed. The tongue tip stays down so the tip touches</p><p>the back of the bottom front teeth, but the top, front part arches up towards the</p><p>roof of the mouth. If you’re not sure what to focus on when working on this</p><p>diphthong, focus on arching the tongue while keeping everything else relaxed.</p><p>Video 4.3 — The AI as in BUY [aɪ] Diphthong</p><p>See illustrations of the beginning and ending positions for</p><p>this sound, as well as up-close, slow motion speech. engl.io/ahw</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.8 — The AI as in BUY [aɪ] Diphthong.</p><p>Does your jaw change from more dropped to less? Are your lips relaxed? What</p><p>you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is [aɪ] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?</p><p>ai [aɪ] Stressed</p><p>buy [baɪ] Stressed</p><p>united [juˈnaɪ dɪd] Stressed</p><p>mind [maɪnd] Stressed</p><p>ai [aɪ], ai [aɪ] Stressed, Unstressed</p><p>idea [aɪˈdi əә] Unstressed</p><p>exercise [ˈɛk səәɹˌsaɪz] Unstressed</p><p>http://engl.io/ahw</p><p>69</p><p>Audio 4.8 — The AI as in BUY [aɪ] Diphthong</p><p>engl.io/ahy</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>y: my [maɪ]</p><p>ai: aisle [aɪl]</p><p>ie: lie [laɪ]</p><p>ye: bye [baɪ]</p><p>uy: buy [baɪ]</p><p>igh: sight [saɪt]</p><p>eigh: height [haɪt]</p><p>aye: aye [aɪ]</p><p>i: time [taɪm]</p><p>[eɪ] – AY as in SAY Diphthong</p><p>http://engl.io/ahy</p><p>70</p><p>This sound begins with the [e] vowel, which is not a vowel on its own in American</p><p>English. To make the position, the jaw drops some. The tip of the tongue stays</p><p>down, touching behind the bottom of the top front teeth. The mid-front part lifts</p><p>slightly towards the roof of the mouth. Think of making the top of the tongue</p><p>extra wide. For the ending position, the jaw should drop less. The front part of</p><p>the tongue arches up towards the roof of the mouth, just like the ending of the AI</p><p>as in BUY [aɪ] diphthong.</p><p>Video 4.4 — The AY as in SAY [eɪ] Diphthong</p><p>See illustrations of the beginning and ending positions for</p><p>this sound, as well as up-close, slow motion speech. engl.io/ah2</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.9 — The AY as in SAY [eɪ] Diphthong.</p><p>Does your tongue move up into an arched position? What you hear on the file is</p><p>organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 3 times) Is [eɪ] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?</p><p>ay [eɪ] Stressed</p><p>play [pleɪ] Stressed</p><p>stay [steɪ] Stressed</p><p>late [leɪt] Stressed</p><p>ay [eɪ], ay [eɪ] Stressed, unstressed</p><p>highway [ˈhaɪ weɪ] Unstressed</p><p>always [ˈɔl weɪz] Unstressed</p><p>http://engl.io/ah2</p><p>71</p><p>Audio 4.9 — The AY as in SAY [eɪ] Diphthong</p><p>engl.io/ah5</p><p>Sometimes when students are trying to learn the IH as in SIT [ɪ] vowel, which you</p><p>learned in the last chapter, they substitute this diphthong instead. Below is a</p><p>complicated audio file—you’re comparing three different sounds. Remember, for</p><p>the AY as in SAY [eɪ] diphthong, your mouth should be moving from a beginning</p><p>position to an ending position. The other two sounds are vowels, so the mouth</p><p>shouldn’t move as you’re making them.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.10 — AY [eɪ] vs. IH [ɪ] vs. EE [i].</p><p>Your jaw will go from most to least lowered: Lower the most for the beginning of</p><p>the [eɪ] diphthong, then lower just a bit for the second half of the [eɪ] diphthong.</p><p>Keep the same jaw position for the [ɪ] vowel, then drop the jaw even less for the</p><p>[i] vowel. The tongue will change from further away from the roof</p><p>of the mouth</p><p>for the beginning of the [eɪ] diphthong, to arching up closer for the ending of the</p><p>diphthong. Keep the same position for the [ɪ] vowel, but then move the arch of</p><p>the tongue closer to the roof of the mouth for the [i] vowel.</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Stressed or Unstressed?</p><p>ay [eɪ], ih [ɪ], ee [i] Stressed</p><p>shape [ʃeɪp], ship [ʃɪp], sheep [ʃip] Stressed</p><p>tame [teɪm], Tim [tɪm], team [tim] Stressed</p><p>sane [seɪn], sin [sɪn], seen [sin] Stressed</p><p>ate [eɪt], it [ɪt], eat [it] Stressed</p><p>http://engl.io/ah5</p><p>72</p><p>Audio 4.10 — AY [eɪ] vs. IH [ɪ] vs. EE [i]</p><p>engl.io/ah8</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 4.11 — AY [eɪ] vs. IH [ɪ] vs. EE [i] Test.</p><p>You’ll hear five different three-word sequences, like ‘shape, ship, sheep’, each</p><p>two times. Write down the words in the order you hear them. Answers in the</p><p>Answers Appendix.</p><p>Audio 4.11 — AY [eɪ] vs. IH [ɪ] vs. EE [i] Test</p><p>1. ‘hail’ sequence</p><p>2. ‘Nate’ sequence</p><p>3. ‘whale’ sequence</p><p>4. ‘grain’ sequence</p><p>5. ‘nail’ sequence</p><p>engl.io/aib</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>a: age [eɪʤ]</p><p>ai: aid [eɪd]</p><p>ay: say [seɪ]</p><p>eight: eight [eɪt]</p><p>ey: they [ðeɪ]</p><p>http://engl.io/ah8</p><p>http://engl.io/aib</p><p>73</p><p>[ɔɪ] – The OY as in TOY Diphthong</p><p>This diphthong begins with the AW as in LAW [ɔ] vowel. As a part of the</p><p>diphthong, the lips round more than they do for the pure vowel by itself, like in</p><p>‘law’ [lɔ]. The tongue lifts, front and back, and the tip might pull back just a bit so</p><p>it’s not touching the back of the front teeth. The jaw will drop some, and the lips</p><p>will flare and round. To move into the second position, the IH as in SIT [ɪ] vowel,</p><p>relax the lips. The corners will move out into their natural position again. Let the</p><p>74</p><p>jaw close some. The tongue tip stays down so the tip touches the back of the</p><p>bottom front teeth, but the front part arches up towards the roof of the mouth.</p><p>Video 4.5 — The OY as in TOY [ɔɪ] Diphthong</p><p>See illustrations of the beginning and ending positions for</p><p>this sound, as well as up-close, slow motion speech. engl.io/aie</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.12 — The OY as in TOY [ɔɪ] Diphthong.</p><p>Does your jaw drop for the beginning of the sound, then relax up as the lips</p><p>relax? What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 3 times) Is [ɔɪ] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?</p><p>oy [ɔɪ] Stressed</p><p>toy [tɔɪ] Stressed</p><p>employs [ɛmˈplɔɪz] Stressed</p><p>voice [vɔɪs] Stressed</p><p>oy [ɔɪ] , oy [ɔɪ] Stressed, unstressed</p><p>steroid [ˈstɛɹ ɔɪd] Unstressed</p><p>envoy [ˈɑn vɔɪ] Unstressed</p><p>Audio 4.12 — The OY as in TOY [ɔɪ] Diphthong</p><p>engl.io/aig</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>oi: moist [mɔɪst]</p><p>oy: boy [bɔɪ]</p><p>http://engl.io/aie</p><p>http://engl.io/aig</p><p>75</p><p>[ju] – The EW as in FEW Diphthong</p><p>I said at the beginning of this section that a diphthong is two vowel sounds</p><p>together. Yes … but … the Y [j] sound isn’t a vowel (see the box below). I still</p><p>call it a diphthong! Start with the top, front part of the tongue touching the roof of</p><p>the mouth. Press the tongue against it with a forward motion. The tongue tip</p><p>stays down, so the tip touches the back of the bottom front teeth. Then move</p><p>into the OO as in BOO vowel [u] shape. The lips have to round and the tongue</p><p>76</p><p>lifts in the back. The front part of the tongue pulls away from the roof of the</p><p>mouth.</p><p>Video 4.6 — The EW as in FEW [ju] Diphthong</p><p>See illustrations of the beginning and ending positions for</p><p>this sound, as well as up-close, slow motion speech. engl.io/aik</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.13 — The EW as in FEW [ju] Diphthong.</p><p>Do your lips start relaxed, then round? What you hear on the file is organized in</p><p>this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 3 times) Is [ju] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?</p><p>ew [ju] Stressed</p><p>few [fju] Stressed</p><p>beauty [ˈbju di] Stressed</p><p>view [vju] Stressed</p><p>ew [ju], ew [ju] Stressed, Unstressed</p><p>U. S. [juˈɛs] Unstressed</p><p>January [ˈdʒæn ju ˌɛɹ i] Unstressed</p><p>Audio 4.13 — The EW as in FEW [ju] Diphthong</p><p>engl.io/ain</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>u: use [juz]</p><p>eu: feud [fjud]</p><p>ew: few [fju]</p><p>eau: beauty [ˈbju di]</p><p>http://engl.io/aik</p><p>http://engl.io/ain</p><p>77</p><p>How many diphthongs are there? That depends on who you ask. Some</p><p>resources do not consider the EW as in FEW [ju] diphthong a diphthong.</p><p>I have chosen to. It makes sense to me that in the word ‘music’, for</p><p>example, the [j] sound goes with the [u] sound to make a diphthong,</p><p>rather than with the M consonant to make a consonant cluster. Some</p><p>resources list additional diphthongs that I did not include here, like [ɛəә],</p><p>as in ‘bear’ [bɛəәɹ], or [ɪəә], as in ‘ear’ [ɪəәɹ]. I think it’s confusing to think of</p><p>these as diphthongs because there’s not really a schwa sound; it blends</p><p>into the R sound. The point is, different labels make sense to different</p><p>people! If you see a different set of diphthongs in another resource, it’s</p><p>not wrong. It’s just what seems right to someone else!</p><p>Test yourself: Non-Audio 4.1 — Match the Symbols with the Sound.</p><p>Make sure you’re familiar with the symbols of the American diphthongs. Answers</p><p>are in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>1. OH as in NO</p><p>2. OW as in NOW</p><p>3. AI as in BUY</p><p>4. AY as in SAY</p><p>5. OY as in TOY</p><p>6. EW as in FEW</p><p>a. [aʊ]</p><p>b. [ɔɪ]</p><p>c. [oʊ]</p><p>d. [aɪ]</p><p>e. [ju]</p><p>f. [eɪ]</p><p>Test yourself: Audio 4.14 — What diphthong are you hearing?</p><p>All of the diphthongs are on the audio file once. Write down the numbers below</p><p>in the order you hear them, then listen again to check yourself. Answers in the</p><p>Answers Appendix.</p><p>a. OH as in NO</p><p>b. OW as in NOW</p><p>c. AI as in BUY</p><p>d. AY as in SAY</p><p>e. OY as in TOY</p><p>f. EW as in FEW</p><p>Audio 4.14 — What diphthong are you hearing?</p><p>engl.io/aip</p><p>http://engl.io/aip</p><p>78</p><p>Test yourself: Audio 4.15 — Mixed Minimal Pairs, Vowels and Diphthongs.</p><p>Each set is written alphabetically. Is that the right order or wrong order, based on</p><p>what you hear on the audio file? Answers in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>1. hale [heɪl], heal [hil], hill [hɪl]</p><p>2. lane [leɪn], lean [lin], Lynne [lɪn]</p><p>3. ought [ɔt], out [aʊt]</p><p>4. fond [fɑnd], found [faʊnd]</p><p>5. bag [bæg], bog [bɑg]</p><p>6. sap [sæp], sop [sɑp]</p><p>7. fond [fɑnd], fund [fʌnd]</p><p>8. stock [stɑk], stuck [stʌk]</p><p>9. bad [bæd], bed [bεd]</p><p>10. had [hæd], head [hεd]</p><p>11. fell [fεl], fill [fɪl]</p><p>12. pet [pεt], pit [pɪt]</p><p>13. wooed [wud], wood [wʊd]</p><p>14. fool [ful], full [fʊl]</p><p>Audio 4.15 — Test yourself: Mixed Minimal Pairs, Vowels</p><p>and Diphthongs</p><p>engl.io/ais</p><p>http://engl.io/ais</p><p>79</p><p>Chapter 5</p><p>Consonants</p><p>Now we get to complete the sounds. In the sample words from the previous two</p><p>chapters, you may have noticed a few things that surprised you. For example</p><p>why is there a [d] in ‘beauty’? In this section, you’ll find out why.</p><p>This section does not give two audio versions of each sound, stressed and</p><p>unstressed, like the Vowels and Diphthongs chapters. This is because the shape</p><p>and length of a syllable generally comes from the vowel or diphthong sound, not</p><p>the consonants.</p><p>With vowels and diphthongs, you learned that English is not a phonetic language.</p><p>One letter can represent various sounds, and you have to learn the pronunciation</p><p>of each word as you learn the word. This is true of consonants as well. The</p><p>letters CH, for example, can make the CH [ʧ] sound like in ‘chance’, the SH [ʃ]</p><p>sound like in ‘machine’, or the K [k] sound like in ‘choir’. To know which</p><p>pronunciation goes with which word, you’ll have to look the word up in a</p><p>dictionary.</p><p>Consonants fall into two categories, voiced and unvoiced (all vowels and</p><p>diphthongs are voiced). Unvoiced sounds are made with just the breath, no</p><p>sound from the vocal cords. Voiced sounds involve a sound from the vocal</p><p>cords. It’s almost like your throat is making the ‘uh’ sound while the rest of your</p><p>mouth takes the position of the consonant. Look at, for example, the [s] sound.</p><p>This sound is unvoiced. When you make it, place your hand on your throat.</p><p>Nothing in your throat moves, the vocal cords</p><p>are not engaged. Now make the</p><p>80</p><p>[z] sound, which is just like the [s] sound in position, only the vocal cords are</p><p>engaged, making sound. Hold out the sound touching your throat. You should</p><p>feel the throat vibrating.</p><p>Video 5.1 — Voiced vs. Unvoiced Consonants</p><p>See the difference in these sounds explained, and hear the</p><p>difference. engl.io/ak2</p><p>Some consonants are paired, where there is just one mouth position for both</p><p>sounds. One is voiced and the other unvoiced.</p><p>Paired Consonants:</p><p>Voiced: Unvoiced:</p><p>B [b]</p><p>G [g]</p><p>D [d]</p><p>V [v]</p><p>Z [z]</p><p>ZH [ʒ]</p><p>TH [ð]</p><p>J [dʒ]</p><p>P [b]</p><p>K [k]</p><p>T [t]</p><p>F [f]</p><p>S [s]</p><p>SH [ ʃ ]</p><p>TH [θ]</p><p>CH [tʃ ]</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.1 — Paired Consonants.</p><p>Each of the pairs in the chart above are on the audio file, in order. You’ll hear the</p><p>sequence twice.</p><p>Audio 5.1 — Paired Consonants</p><p>engl.io/ak4</p><p>The rest of the consonants are unpaired. That means they have a unique mouth</p><p>position. Of the unpaired consonants, there is only one unvoiced sound, H [h].</p><p>M [m], N [n], NG [ŋ], Y [j], W [w], R [ɹ], and L [l] are all voiced, with the vocal</p><p>cords buzzing with the sound.</p><p>http://engl.io/ak2</p><p>http://engl.io/ak4</p><p>81</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.2 — Unpaired Consonants.</p><p>You’ll hear the sequence twice.</p><p>Audio 5.2 — Unpaired Consonants</p><p>H [h], M [m], N [n], NG [ŋ], Y [j], W [w], R [ɹ], Light L [l], Dark</p><p>L [l] engl.io/ak7</p><p>Section 1: Paired Consonants</p><p>The first three pairs of this section are stop consonants, for six stop consonants</p><p>in total. These consonants are different from all the others in an important way:</p><p>you can’t hold them out. They all involve a stop of air, then a release. As you’ll</p><p>learn, it’s common to skip the release of stop consonants.</p><p>The B [b] and P [p] Consonants</p><p>http://engl.io/ak7</p><p>82</p><p>The jaw may drop a little bit for these sounds, but the lips remain closed. The</p><p>tongue is forward. Because they are stop consonants, there is a stop of air and a</p><p>release of air. The stop happens when the lips close. Then the lips part and</p><p>release into the next sound, if there is one. If the word is ‘bye’, the B releases</p><p>directly into the AI as in BUY diphthong [aɪ], there is not a release of air followed</p><p>by the diphthong. The P sound is unvoiced and the B sound is voiced.</p><p>Video 5.2 — The B [b] and P [p] Consonants</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for these sounds, as</p><p>well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/ak8</p><p>Stop consonants can be tricky because many Americans only pronounce the first</p><p>half of the sound, the stop. For these sounds, that means putting the lips</p><p>together, but not releasing the air afterward. We do this often when a word ends</p><p>in B or P and the next word begins with a consonant (“I can’t help myself.”).</p><p>When the B or P is at the end of a sentence, the release will be dropped, or the</p><p>release will be light (“Stop!”, “I haven’t heard from Bob.”).</p><p>Stop Consonants: Why skip the release? In American English, we like</p><p>everything to be smooth and for all the words in a sentence to flow</p><p>together. Stop consonants, in full with their release, chop up and</p><p>separate words. When we leave out the release and go right into the next</p><p>word, it sounds smoother.</p><p>http://engl.io/ak8</p><p>83</p><p>Video 5.3 — Stop Consonants</p><p>Now that you’ve learned a little about Stop Consonants, see</p><p>more examples and watch how the mouth stops the sound</p><p>without the release.</p><p>engl.io/aka</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.3 — The B [b] and P [p] Consonants.</p><p>You’ll hear these consonants at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What</p><p>you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is the stop consonant released or unreleased?</p><p>bb [b], pp [p] Released</p><p>put [pʊt] Released into vowel</p><p>boss [bɔs] Released into vowel</p><p>shopping [ˈʃɑp ɪŋ] Released into vowel</p><p>subway [ˈsʌb weɪ] Released</p><p>stop [stɑp] Released</p><p>job [ʤɑb￨] Unreleased</p><p>Audio 5.3 — The B [b] and P [p] Consonants</p><p>engl.io/akd</p><p>You’ll see these sounds spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>[b]</p><p>b: bought [bɔt]</p><p>bb: wobble [ˈwɑb əәl]</p><p>[p]</p><p>p: put [pʊt]</p><p>pp: happy [ˈhæp i]</p><p>gh: hiccough [ˈhɪk ʌp] (this is an unusual spelling, it’s usually spelled ‘hiccup’)</p><p>http://engl.io/aka</p><p>http://engl.io/akd</p><p>84</p><p>The G [g] and K [k] Consonants</p><p>These sounds are made by lifting the back of the tongue so that it touches the</p><p>soft palate, then pulling down to release the tongue and the air. The tip of the</p><p>tongue and the lip position do not affect this sound. That means they can start to</p><p>take the shape of the next sound. For example, the word ‘great’ [gɹeɪt]. The tip</p><p>of the tongue can pull back and up and the lips can flare for the R [ɹ] sound while</p><p>you make the G [g] sound. The G sound is voiced, and the K sound is unvoiced.</p><p>These consonants are stop consonants. The air is stopped when the tongue</p><p>touches the soft palate, and released when it pulls away from the soft palate.</p><p>Though they are stop consonants, it is less common to drop the release of them</p><p>at the end of a sentence (“I’ll have a little snack”) than for other stop consonants.</p><p>This is also true when they are followed by a consonant (“I think my watch is</p><p>broken”). Sometimes you’ll hear a stop, and sometimes you’ll hear a light</p><p>release.</p><p>85</p><p>Video 5.4 — The G [g] and K [k] Consonants</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for these sounds, as</p><p>well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/akf</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.4 — The G [g] and K [k] Consonants.</p><p>You’ll hear these consonants at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What</p><p>you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is the stop consonant released or unreleased?</p><p>gg [g], kk [k] Released</p><p>cut [kʌt] Released into vowel</p><p>go [goʊ] Released into vowel</p><p>location [loʊˈkeɪ ʃəәn] Released into vowel</p><p>ugly [ˈʌg li] Released into consonant</p><p>click [klɪk] Released</p><p>dog [dɔg] Released</p><p>Audio 5.4 — The G [g] and K [k] Consonants</p><p>engl.io/akh</p><p>You’ll see these sounds spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>[g]</p><p>g: go [goʊ]</p><p>gg: wiggle [ˈwɪg əәl]</p><p>[k]</p><p>c: can [kæn]</p><p>cc: occur [əәˈkɜɹ]</p><p>k: skip [skɪp]</p><p>ck: tick [tɪk]</p><p>ch: character [ˈkæɹ ɪk təәɹ]</p><p>x: extra [ˈεk stɹəә]</p><p>q: quite [kwaɪt]</p><p>http://engl.io/akf</p><p>http://engl.io/akh</p><p>86</p><p>The T [t] and D [d] Consonants</p><p>T is one of the hardest consonants. This is not because the sound is especially</p><p>hard to make, like R [ɹ] or TH [θ]. It’s because there is more than one</p><p>pronunciation for T [t].</p><p>First, let me clarify that we’re talking about the sounds [t] and [d], not the letters T</p><p>and D. The word ‘future’ has the letter T in it, but not the T sound. Here it</p><p>represents the CH [tʃ] sound, [ˈfju tʃəәɹ]. We’re talking only about words with the</p><p>letter T, where the dictionary says the pronunciation is [t].</p><p>The thing to know about the True T [t] is that when you look up a word in the</p><p>dictionary and see [t], it might not actually be the way Americans speak. The IPA</p><p>in most dictionaries is not right—most Americans use lots of Flap T’s and Stop</p><p>T’s, which most dictionaries ignore. Don’t worry, in this section you’ll learn the</p><p>rules for how Americans pronounce [t] (and [d]).</p><p>87</p><p>The rules below outline how Americans speak most of the time in conversation.</p><p>However, sometimes they will make a True T instead, especially if trying to speak</p><p>slower and more clearly. I suggest as a student, that you try to integrate Flap</p><p>and Stop T’s as much as possible to make your speech smoother.</p><p>Video 5.5 — Contractversation</p><p>Want to know what American English sounds like with no</p><p>Flap or Stop T’s (and no contractions?) It doesn’t sound</p><p>quite right, does it? Topic: Going to Starbucks.</p><p>engl.io/akj</p><p>Ways to pronounce [t]</p><p>1) Stop T [t￨]</p><p>Make a Stop T:</p><p>When the next sound is a consonant.</p><p>cutback [ˈkʌt￨ˌbæk]</p><p>put my [pʊt￨ mɑɪ]</p><p>At the end of a thought or sentence.</p><p>I knew that. [ɑɪ ˈnu ðæt￨]</p><p>Neat. [nit￨]</p><p>In the T-schwa-N sequence.</p><p>important [ɪmˈpɔɹ</p><p>t￨əәnt￨]</p><p>mountain [ˈmaʊn t￨əәn]</p><p>How to make the Stop T [t￨]</p><p>The Stop T is made when you stop the air and don’t release it before starting the</p><p>next sound (skipping the release). You don’t need to bring your tongue tip to the</p><p>roof of the mouth. As a shortcut, try leaving the tip down behind the bottom front</p><p>teeth and touching the roof of the mouth with the middle of the tongue as you cut</p><p>off the air in your throat. See the photo below: on the left is the True T position,</p><p>and on the right you can seen an alternate tongue position for the Stop T, where</p><p>you leave your tongue tip down. As you practice words and sentences with the</p><p>Stop T, exaggerate the stop. Hold the air for two or three seconds. Of all the</p><p>stop consonants, the T is the clearest and strongest.</p><p>http://engl.io/akj</p><p>88</p><p>Some people think the Stop T is the same as dropping the T, but it’s not. The</p><p>Stop T changes the vocal shape of the word. Words without the Stop T ending,</p><p>like ‘way’ [weɪ], go down in pitch at the end. The sound falls off. Words with a</p><p>Stop T, like ‘wait’ [weɪt￨], end more abruptly. The melody shape isn’t as curved.</p><p>In the photo below, you can see the volume of the voice in black, and the pitch in</p><p>blue. ‘Way’ is on the left, and ‘wait’ on the right. Notice how ‘way’ tapers more at</p><p>the end. It’s longer, and goes down to a lower pitch. ‘Wait’, on the other hand, is</p><p>shorter and more abrupt, with less taper. Keep this in mind as you listen to the</p><p>audio file.</p><p>89</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.5 — Stop T vs. No T.</p><p>Can you hear the difference between words with a Stop T and words that are</p><p>exactly the same except that they have no Stop T? What is different about these</p><p>words? Listen for the shape: words without the stop T go down in pitch at the</p><p>end. Words with the Stop T end more abruptly. The first time, just listen. Then</p><p>listen and repeat, imitating the shape of the voice.</p><p>Audio 5.5 — Stop T vs. No T</p><p>way [weɪ] — wait [weɪt￨]</p><p>bay [beɪ] — bait [beɪt￨]</p><p>day [deɪ] — date [deɪt￨]</p><p>fee [fi] — feet [fit￨]</p><p>she [ʃi] — sheet [ʃit￨]</p><p>pow [paʊ]— pout [paʊt￨]</p><p>engl.io/akm</p><p>2) Flap T [d]</p><p>Make a Flap T:</p><p>When the T comes between vowel sounds.</p><p>pretty [ˈpɹɪd i]</p><p>about it [əәˈbaʊd‿ɪt￨]</p><p>When the T comes after an R before a vowel sound.</p><p>party [ˈpɑɹ di]</p><p>sort of [ˈsɔɹd‿əәv]</p><p>How to make the Flap T [d]</p><p>The Flap T, and the D between vowels, which you’ll learn about soon, are the</p><p>same sound. I use the symbol [d] in my videos and this book because in these</p><p>cases the T sounds like a D between vowels. But, it sounds like the R [ɾ] in many</p><p>languages (not the American R [ɹ]!), including Japanese (心 ), Korean (바람),</p><p>Portuguese (prato), Spanish (caro), and Arabic (ررججلل). If one of these is your</p><p>native language and it makes sense to you to think of the Flap T as your R, go</p><p>ahead and do that.</p><p>To make this flap sound, the very front of tongue bounces against the roof of the</p><p>mouth quickly. The air does not stop, so it doesn’t interrupt the flow of the word.</p><p>The position of the tongue when it flaps against the roof of the mouth can be the</p><p>same as the position for the True T, with the tongue all the way forward.</p><p>http://engl.io/akm</p><p>90</p><p>However, it’s also possible to make this sound with the tongue flapping a little</p><p>further back in the mouth.</p><p>Many people mispronounce the American R, making instead a Flap T. You’ll</p><p>learn how to make the American R soon.</p><p>Video 5.6 — The Flap T like in PARTY</p><p>Study the Flap T after R, before a vowel.</p><p>engl.io/akp</p><p>Video 5.7 — The Flap T like in PRETTY</p><p>Study the Flap T between vowels on a beautiful spring day</p><p>in New York. engl.io/akr</p><p>3) No T at All</p><p>Drop the T Sound:</p><p>Between consonants. Note: dropping the T altogether, as in both of these</p><p>cases, is not as strong of a habit for Americans as using the Flap and Stop T.</p><p>exactly [ɪgˈzæk li]</p><p>kept my [kεp￨ maɪ]</p><p>After the N sound.</p><p>internet [ˈɪn əәɹˌnεt￨]</p><p>wanted [ˈwɑn ɪd]</p><p>Video 5.8 — On the Farm</p><p>Study T pronunciations, including dropping the T, in real</p><p>American conversation. engl.io/akt</p><p>Video 5.9 — T and D between Consonants</p><p>See examples of dropping the T and D between two other</p><p>consonants. engl.io/akv</p><p>4) True T [t]</p><p>Make a True T:</p><p>At the beginning of a stressed syllable. Note: this rule overrides previous</p><p>rules. For example, in ‘until’, the T comes after the N, which is often dropped.</p><p>http://engl.io/akp</p><p>http://engl.io/akr</p><p>http://engl.io/akt</p><p>http://engl.io/akv</p><p>91</p><p>But, since it starts a stressed syllable in this word, it will be a True T. Also, in</p><p>‘attain’, the T sound comes between two vowels, which would be a Flap T. But</p><p>since it starts a stressed syllable, it’s a True T.</p><p>until [ʌnˈtɪl]</p><p>attire [əәˈtaɪəәɹ]</p><p>In consonant clusters. Note: this rule does not override previous rules.</p><p>Americans may drop the T in a consonant cluster when the next word begins</p><p>with a consonant, like in ‘kept my’.</p><p>connect [kəәˈnεkt]</p><p>stop [stɑp]</p><p>How to make the True T [t]</p><p>The True T is a stop consonant. The stop is made when you stop the air in the</p><p>throat, close your teeth, and bring the tip of the tongue to the roof of your mouth,</p><p>behind your front teeth. The release happens when you lower your tongue, let</p><p>your teeth part, and release the air, beginning the next sound. The release is a</p><p>92</p><p>burst of air; you should be able to feel it if you put your hand in front of your</p><p>mouth.</p><p>Video 5.10 — The T [t] and D [d] Consonants</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for these sounds, as</p><p>well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position. This video goes over how to make the True T, but</p><p>also touches on the Flap T and Stop consonants.</p><p>engl.io/akx</p><p>Exceptions</p><p>Even though these rules are pretty strong, there are some exceptions, including:</p><p>• into [ˈɪn tu]: the T comes after an N and doesn’t start a stressed syllable, so</p><p>the rules say we can drop it. But, we make this a True T.</p><p>• seventy [ˈsεv əәn di]] and ninety [ˈnaɪn di]: the T comes after an N and</p><p>doesn’t start a stressed syllable, so the rules say we can drop it. But, we</p><p>make these Flap T’s.</p><p>• politics [ˈpɑl əә tɪks]: the T comes between two vowel sounds and doesn’t</p><p>start a stressed syllable, so the rules say it’s a Flap T. But, we make this a</p><p>True T.</p><p>Video 5.11 — The Word SEVENTY</p><p>This T doesn’t follow the rules.</p><p>engl.io/amz</p><p>Do these rules seem confusing? Don’t panic. The more you study them, and the</p><p>more you pay attention to and imitate native speakers, the more natural they</p><p>become.</p><p>Test yourself: Non-Audio 5.1 — How should the T’s be pronounced?</p><p>Based on the rules above, how should you pronounce these T’s? Answers in the</p><p>Answers Appendix.</p><p>a. True T b. Flap T c. Stop T</p><p>1. not alone</p><p>2. thought about</p><p>3. wait for</p><p>4. country</p><p>http://engl.io/akx</p><p>http://engl.io/amz</p><p>93</p><p>5. time</p><p>6. what</p><p>7. exact</p><p>8. part of</p><p>9. attack</p><p>10. football</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.6 — The Three T Sounds.</p><p>The first time, just listen to all of the words. Do you hear how the T is different?</p><p>Then practice. The True T has a sharp escape of air. What you hear on the file</p><p>is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) What kind of T is it?</p><p>tt [t] True</p><p>time [taɪm] True</p><p>attain [əәˈteɪn] True</p><p>party [ˈpɑɹ di]] Flap</p><p>city [ˈsɪd i] Flap</p><p>might [maɪt￨] Stop</p><p>definitely [ˈdεf əә nɪt￨ li] Stop</p><p>Audio 5.6 — The Three T Sounds</p><p>engl.io/anb</p><p>Video 5.12 — T Pronunciations</p><p>This video clarifies some of the rules you just learned about</p><p>when to make which T. engl.io/anc</p><p>Video 5.13 — T Pronunciations Test</p><p>This video gives you examples — can you identify which T</p><p>pronunciation you should use? engl.io/ane</p><p>http://engl.io/anb</p><p>http://engl.io/anc</p><p>http://engl.io/ane</p><p>94</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 5.7 — What T do you Hear?</p><p>You’ll hear eight words or phrases. Each word either has a True T, Flap T, Stop</p><p>T, or No T at All. What word or phrase do you hear? What kind of T? Answers</p><p>in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>Audio 5.7 — What T do you Hear?</p><p>engl.io/ang</p><p>Note: As you’ve learned,</p><p>the pronunciation of a final T depends on the</p><p>context. Is it the end of a thought, or followed by a consonant? Americans</p><p>will make that a Stop T most of the time. Is it followed by a vowel or</p><p>diphthong? Americans will make that a Flap T most of the time. Is</p><p>someone speaking extra clearly, maybe into a microphone to a larger</p><p>group? Then maybe that person would make it a True T. In this book,</p><p>when we’re just studying words by themselves, I put the True T symbol.</p><p>But remember, in a sentence, you’ll likely want to make it a Flap T or Stop T</p><p>to make your sentence smoother.</p><p>The D Sounds</p><p>That was a lot of information on the T sound. What about the D sound? The D</p><p>sound [d] is similar to the T, but there are fewer rules and students naturally have</p><p>an easier time with it.</p><p>http://engl.io/ang</p><p>95</p><p>This it the same photo as above, for the True T sound. To make the [d] sound,</p><p>stop the air in your throat and bring the tongue tip to the roof of the mouth. You</p><p>can close your teeth, like for the T sound, but you can also make this sound</p><p>without the teeth closing all the way. Release the tongue with your voice—this is</p><p>a voiced consonant—and go right into the next sound.</p><p>Like with the other stop consonants, the release is often skipped if the next</p><p>sound is a consonant or at the end of a thought or sentence. Some people ask</p><p>me the difference between the Stop T and a D that’s not released. Great</p><p>question. They sound almost the same. With the D, however, there is a bit of a</p><p>voiced sound in the throat, even in the stop. So ‘hid’ [hɪd￨] and ‘hit’ [hɪt￨] sound</p><p>different to native speakers, even when the stop is not released. Another tip:</p><p>when two words are the same but one ending is voiced and the other unvoiced,</p><p>the vowel before the voiced ending is just a little longer. So ‘hid’ is a little longer</p><p>than ‘hit’, ‘buzz’ is a little bit longer than ‘bus’, and so on.</p><p>If the D comes between two vowels or diphthongs (“body”), or after an R and</p><p>before a vowel or diphthong (“hardy”), the air doesn’t stop. These are the same</p><p>rules for the Flap T, and it sounds just like the Flap T. It’s no longer a stop</p><p>consonant! The tongue simply flaps against the roof of the mouth. Because the</p><p>Flap T and the D between vowel sounds the same, these words sound the same:</p><p>matter [ˈmæd əәɹ] — madder [ˈmæd əәɹ]</p><p>writer [ˈɹaɪ dəәɹ] — rider [ˈɹaɪ dəәɹ]</p><p>Also because the Flap T sounds like the D between vowels, some phrases sound</p><p>the same:</p><p>Video 5.14 — Homophone Phrases</p><p>Learn how phrases can sound the same even though they</p><p>are made up of different words. engl.io/anj</p><p>http://engl.io/anj</p><p>96</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.8 — The D [d] Consonant.</p><p>You’ll hear D [d] at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What you hear on</p><p>the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is the stop consonant released or unreleased?</p><p>dd [d] Released</p><p>do [du] Released into vowel</p><p>die [daɪ] Released into vowel</p><p>lady [ˈleɪ di] Released into vowel</p><p>medicine [ˈmεd əә sɪn] Released into vowel</p><p>need [nid] Released</p><p>add [æd] Released</p><p>Audio 5.8 — The D [d] Consonant</p><p>engl.io/anm</p><p>You’ll see these sounds spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>[t]</p><p>t: tap [tæp]</p><p>tt: attain [əәˈteɪn]</p><p>[d]</p><p>d: dog [dɔg]</p><p>dd: add [æd]</p><p>That was a lot of information on the stop consonants. Now we’re getting</p><p>into consonants that aren’t stop consonants. These are sounds you can</p><p>hold out until you run out of breath. It’s good to hold the consonant for</p><p>several seconds as you’re practicing it to get your body used to the mouth</p><p>position and airflow.</p><p>http://engl.io/anm</p><p>97</p><p>The V [v] and F [f] Consonant Sounds</p><p>These consonants are ‘fricatives’, which means we pass the air through a narrow</p><p>channel made by the lips, tongue, or teeth. In this case, we bring the bottom lip</p><p>up to touch the bottom of the top front teeth and pass air through this pressed</p><p>space. The F is unvoiced, and the V is voiced.</p><p>A common mistake students make with these sounds is to curl in the bottom lip.</p><p>We don’t want it to curl in, just lift. It’s the inside of the bottom lip that should</p><p>touch the bottom of the top front teeth. The lips have to be loose, without</p><p>tension, so they can vibrate with the air. These sounds have no stop like the</p><p>consonants we studied so far. That means you can hold them out for several</p><p>seconds as you practice, to fine-tune your mouth position.</p><p>98</p><p>Video 5.15 — The V [v] and F [f] Consonants</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for these sounds, as</p><p>well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/anp</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.9 — The V [v] and F [f] Consonants.</p><p>You’ll hear these consonants at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What</p><p>you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>vv [v], ff [f]</p><p>fail [feɪl]</p><p>vest [vεst]</p><p>delivery [dɪˈlɪv əә ɹi]</p><p>differ [ˈdɪf əәɹ]</p><p>leave [liv]</p><p>leaf [lif]</p><p>Audio 5.9 — The V [v] and F [f] Consonants</p><p>engl.io/ans</p><p>In the audio file, pay special attention to the last two words, ‘leave’ and ‘leaf’.</p><p>There are two things to notice:</p><p>1) The [v] at the end of ‘leave’ is weak. It’s not as clear or a strong as a</p><p>beginning V, like the [v] in ‘vest’. In these pairs, the voiced consonants are</p><p>weak at the end of words, and they sound almost unvoiced. But that doesn’t</p><p>mean ‘leave’ sounds just like ‘leaf’. ‘Leaf’ has a strong voiced sound at the</p><p>end, where ‘leave’ has a weak voiced or unvoiced sound at the end.</p><p>2) ‘Leaf’ is a little shorter. As we said above, words with a final unvoiced sound</p><p>can be a little shorter than words that end in a voiced sound. So, ‘bet’ will</p><p>sound shorter than ‘bed’.</p><p>These two points are true of all the paired consonants.</p><p>http://engl.io/anp</p><p>http://engl.io/ans</p><p>99</p><p>You’ll see these sounds spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>[f]</p><p>f: fun [fʌn]</p><p>ff: stuff [stʌf]</p><p>ph: phone [foʊn]</p><p>gh: laugh [læf]</p><p>[v]</p><p>v: love [lʌv]</p><p>vv: savvy [ˈsæv i]</p><p>The Z [z] and S [s] Consonants</p><p>These sounds are also fricatives. Here, the air passage is made narrow with the</p><p>teeth. The teeth come together, and the tongue can take one of two positions. It</p><p>can either point down, so it presses against the back of the bottom front teeth</p><p>100</p><p>(that’s how I make it). Or, it can point up, where the tongue tip doesn’t touch</p><p>anything, but is close to the roof of the mouth. The S is unvoiced and the Z is</p><p>voiced.</p><p>Video 5.16 — The S [s] and Z [z] Consonants</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for these sounds, as</p><p>well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/anu</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.10 — The Z [z] and S [s] Consonants.</p><p>You’ll hear these consonants at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What</p><p>you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>zz [z], ss [s]</p><p>sun [sʌn]</p><p>zoo [zu]</p><p>dressy [ˈdɹεs i]</p><p>Brazil [bɹəәˈzɪl]</p><p>lays [leɪz]</p><p>lace [leɪs]</p><p>Audio 5.10 — The Z [z] and S [s] Consonants</p><p>engl.io/anw</p><p>Some of my students, especially Spanish speakers, make a very clear S [s]</p><p>sound for every S they see. But many S’s are pronounced as a Z: busy,</p><p>business, husband, cousin, as, these, president, always. You’ll learn about when</p><p>the letter S is pronounced [z] for plurals in the next chapter. But there are lots of</p><p>words that aren’t plural nouns where the letter S makes the [z] sound, and you</p><p>just need to learn the pronunciation of them as you learn the word. There is no</p><p>rule.</p><p>http://engl.io/anu</p><p>http://engl.io/anw</p><p>101</p><p>Video 5.17 — Letter S as the [z] Sound</p><p>engl.io/anz</p><p>You’ll see these sounds spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>[s]</p><p>s: sun [sʌn]</p><p>ss: mess [mεs]</p><p>x: extra [ˈεk stɹəә]</p><p>cc: accept [ækˈsεpt]</p><p>c: cell [sεl]</p><p>sc: scent [sεnt]</p><p>[z]</p><p>z: zoo [zu]</p><p>zz: buzz [bʌz]</p><p>s: busy [ˈbɪz i]</p><p>ss: dessert [dɪˈzɜɹt]</p><p>The SH [ʃ] and ZH [ʒ] Consonants</p><p>http://engl.io/anz</p><p>102</p><p>These sounds are also fricatives. Just like with S and Z, the teeth come</p><p>together</p><p>for these sounds to constrict the air passage. The tongue tip lifts so the tip and</p><p>the front part of the tongue are very close to the front part of the roof of the</p><p>mouth, but not touching. The lips flare out. SH [ʃ] is unvoiced and ZH [ʒ] is</p><p>voiced.</p><p>Video 5.18 — The SH [ʃ] and ZH [ʒ] Consonants</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for these sounds, as</p><p>well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/an2</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.11 — The SH [ʃ] and ZH [ʒ] Consonants.</p><p>You’ll hear these consonants at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What</p><p>you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>sh [ʃ], zh [ʒ]</p><p>shame [ʃeɪm]</p><p>genre [ˈʒɑn ɹəә]</p><p>official [əәˈfɪʃ əәl]</p><p>Asia [ˈeɪ ʒəә]</p><p>stash [stæʃ]</p><p>beige [beɪʒ]</p><p>Audio 5.11 — The SH [ʃ] and ZH [ʒ] Consonants</p><p>engl.io/an4</p><p>http://engl.io/an2</p><p>http://engl.io/an4</p><p>103</p><p>You’ll see these sounds spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>[ʃ]</p><p>sh: ship [ʃɪp]</p><p>sch: schwa [ʃwɑ]</p><p>ti: action [ˈæk ʃəәn]</p><p>ci: crucial [ˈkɹu ʃəәl]</p><p>ssi: mission [ˈmɪʃ əәn]</p><p>s: sure [ʃʊəәɹ]</p><p>[ʒ]</p><p>s: usual [ˈju ʒu əәl]</p><p>ge: beige [beɪʒ]</p><p>z: azure [ˈæʒ əәɹ]</p><p>The Two TH [θ] and [ð] Consonants</p><p>104</p><p>These sounds are also fricatives. Here, the air passage is constricted by the</p><p>tongue and the teeth. To make these sounds, the tongue tip needs to come</p><p>through the teeth, just a little bit.</p><p>These sounds are not in many common languages, and their unique tongue</p><p>position can make them a challenge. Students often substitute the F and V, the</p><p>S and Z, or the T and D sounds. Don’t do that, get comfortable with these new</p><p>sounds. Know their position and how they’re different from F and V, S and Z,</p><p>and T and D.</p><p>If you usually substitute F and V: relax your bottom lip down. Lightly bring your</p><p>tongue tip through the teeth.</p><p>If you usually substitute S and Z: your tongue tip is in the wrong place. You’re</p><p>probably putting it behind the bottom front teeth. Instead, lift the tongue tip and</p><p>push it lightly through the front teeth.</p><p>If you usually substitute T and D: your tongue tip is in the wrong place. You’re</p><p>lifting it too high. Lower the tongue tip just a bit so you can lightly push it through</p><p>the front teeth.</p><p>Common mistakes: aside from the substitutions, one frequent problem is that</p><p>students put too much of their tongue through the teeth. It should just be the tip.</p><p>Also, some students make this a stop sound, with tension that releases. This</p><p>should not be a stop, there should be a continuous flow of air. The tongue has to</p><p>be relaxed for the air to flow freely.</p><p>Video 5.19 — The Two TH [θ] and [ð] Consonants</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for these sounds, as</p><p>well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/an7</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.12 — The Two TH [θ] and [ð] Consonants.</p><p>You’ll hear these consonants at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What</p><p>you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>http://engl.io/an7</p><p>105</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>th [θ], th [ð]</p><p>think [θɪŋk]</p><p>this [ðɪs]</p><p>something [ˈsʌmˌθɪŋ]</p><p>brother [bɹʌð əәɹ]</p><p>with [wɪθ]</p><p>loathe [loʊð]</p><p>Audio 5.12 — The Two TH [θ] and [ð] Consonants</p><p>engl.io/ap2</p><p>These two sounds are only spelled with the letters ‘th’:</p><p>[θ]</p><p>th: theme [θim]</p><p>[ð]</p><p>th: this [ðɪs]</p><p>http://engl.io/ap2</p><p>106</p><p>The CH [ʧ] and JJ [dʒ] Consonants</p><p>These sounds are stops and fricatives, combining the tongue position of T [t] and</p><p>D [d] with the lip position of SH [ʃ] and ZH [ʒ]. The tongue tip is at the roof of the</p><p>mouth, the teeth are together, and the lips flare. Because they are stop</p><p>consonants, you cannot hold them out the way you can hold out SH [ʃ] and ZH</p><p>[ʒ]. Stop the air in the throat with the tongue tip at the roof of the mouth, and</p><p>release the air by pulling the tongue down. Unlike the stop consonants, you</p><p>cannot skip the release on these words.</p><p>Video 5.20 — The CH [ʧ] and JJ [dʒ] Consonants</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for these sounds, as</p><p>well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/ap5</p><p>http://engl.io/ap5</p><p>107</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.13 — The CH [ʧ] and JJ [dʒ] Consonants.</p><p>You’ll hear these consonants at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What</p><p>you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>ch [ʧ], jj [dʒ]</p><p>cheap [ʧip]</p><p>job [ʤɑb]</p><p>kitchen [ˈkɪʧ əәn]</p><p>major [ˈmeɪ ʤəәɹ]</p><p>much [mʌʧ]</p><p>age [eɪʤ]</p><p>Audio 5.13 — The CH [ʧ] and JJ [dʒ] Consonants</p><p>engl.io/ap8</p><p>Some students have a hard time making CH [tʃ] and SH [ʃ] sound different.</p><p>Remember that CH [tʃ] has a stop in it. The lip position is the same, but for CH</p><p>[tʃ] there is a movement of the tongue: it starts at the roof of the mouth, the</p><p>position for [t], then pulls down.</p><p>http://engl.io/ap8</p><p>108</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.14 — SH [ʃ] vs. CH [ʧ].</p><p>You’ll hear these consonants at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What</p><p>you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>wish [wɪʃ], which [wɪʧ]</p><p>chin [ʧɪn], shin [ʃɪn]</p><p>batch [bæʧ], bash [bæʃ]</p><p>ditch [dɪʧ], dish [dɪʃ]</p><p>Audio 5.14 — SH [ʃ] vs. CH [ʧ]</p><p>engl.io/apb</p><p>You’ll see these sounds spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>[ʧ]</p><p>ch: change [ʧeɪnʤ]</p><p>tch: match [mæʧ]</p><p>[dʒ]</p><p>j: jam [ʤæm]</p><p>g: gell [ʤεl]</p><p>dg: budget [ˈbʌʤ ɪt]</p><p>di: soldier [ˈsoʊl ʤəәɹ]</p><p>dj: adjective [ˈæʤ ɪk tɪv]</p><p>Section 2: Non-Paired consonants</p><p>The next three consonants are nasal consonants. A consonant is a ‘nasal’</p><p>consonant when the soft palate is lowered. This allows air to pass through, into</p><p>the nasal passages. Many languages (Bengali, French, Hindi, Polish, Mandarin</p><p>Chinese, Portuguese, to name a few) have some nasal vowels, but English has</p><p>none. Just these three nasal consonants.</p><p>http://engl.io/apb</p><p>109</p><p>The M [m] Consonant</p><p>The M consonant is rather simple—most students don’t have a hard time with it.</p><p>The lips press lightly together, and likely the jaw will drop just a little to get ready</p><p>for the next vowel or diphthong sound. You can hold this sound out continuously.</p><p>When you practice, hold it for 5 seconds and feel the buzz of the voice. This is a</p><p>voiced consonant.</p><p>Video 5.21 — The M [m] Consonant</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/apd</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.15 — The M [m] Consonant.</p><p>You’ll hear the M consonant at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What</p><p>you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>http://engl.io/apd</p><p>110</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>mm [m]</p><p>my [maɪ]</p><p>human [ˈhju məәn]</p><p>some [sʌm]</p><p>Audio 5.15 — The M [m] Consonant</p><p>engl.io/apf</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled two ways in American English.</p><p>m: man [mæn]</p><p>mm: yummy [ˈjʌm i]</p><p>The NG [ŋ] Consonant</p><p>http://engl.io/apf</p><p>111</p><p>This nasal sound is a little different from [m] and [n]: it doesn’t start any words in</p><p>American English. It only comes in the middle (“singer”) or at the end of a word</p><p>(“ring”). It’s made by lifting the back part of the tongue to touch the lowered soft</p><p>palate. The tongue tip stays down in the front, but it might not be quite touching</p><p>the back of the bottom front teeth. Jaw drop and lip position don’t affect this</p><p>sound, as long as the tongue is in the right position.</p><p>Because of the -ing [ɪŋ] form of verbs, this is a very common ending sound. In</p><p>some regions of the US, people often change the -ing ending from [ɪŋ] to [ɪn]. I</p><p>suggest my students stick with the [ɪŋ] pronunciation, except in the most casual</p><p>and common phrases (What are you doing? → Whatcha doin’? [ˈwʌʧ‿əәˈdo ɪn]).</p><p>The letters ‘ng’ can be confusing. We call this the NG [ŋ] sound, but the letters</p><p>‘ng’ often make different sounds. Also, ‘n’ with ‘k’ can make the NG [ŋ], but not</p><p>always:</p><p>ng = [ndʒ]: change [tʃeɪndʒ], angel [ˈeɪn ʤəәl]</p><p>ng = [ng]: unglue [ʌnˈglu], engaged [εnˈgeɪʤd]</p><p>ng = [ŋg]: angle [ˈæŋ</p><p>gəәl], English [ˈɪŋ glɪʃ]</p><p>nk = [ŋk]: ankle [ˈæŋ kəәl], bank [bæŋk]</p><p>nk = [nk]: unkept [ʌnˈkεpt], unkind [ʌnˈkaɪnd] (‘un’ is a prefix)</p><p>As with all words in English, you’ll have to learn the pronunciation as you learn</p><p>the word.</p><p>Video 5.22 — The NG [ŋ] Consonant</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/aph</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.16 — The NG [ŋ] Consonant.</p><p>You’ll hear the NG consonant at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What</p><p>you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>http://engl.io/aph</p><p>112</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>ng [ŋ]</p><p>song [sɔŋ]</p><p>English [ˈɪŋ glɪʃ]]</p><p>young [jʌŋ]</p><p>Audio 5.16 — The NG [ŋ] Consonant</p><p>engl.io/apk</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled two ways in American English.</p><p>ng: thing [θɪŋ]</p><p>n: thank [θæŋk]</p><p>The N [n] Consonant</p><p>This is the hardest of the three nasal consonants for many of my students. When</p><p>it comes at the end of a word, many students (for example, those from China or</p><p>Brazil), want to make the NG sound instead.</p><p>http://engl.io/apk</p><p>113</p><p>N is very different from NG. It is made with the front of the tongue at the front of</p><p>the mouth. Lift the tongue so it is flat and wide—this means the rest of the</p><p>tongue is relaxed. The top of the front of the tongue, not the tip, will touch the</p><p>roof of the mouth. The tip of the tongue will be just behind the top front teeth.</p><p>N [n] at the end of a word gives students the hardest time. Sometimes students</p><p>make the N [n] the right way, with the front part of the tongue at the roof of the</p><p>mouth, but it still sounds like NG [ŋ]. Why? This happens because the back part</p><p>of the tongue lifts too. Think of keeping the back of the tongue as wide as</p><p>possible. That will help keep it lower. It can also help to think of the tongue</p><p>position for the D [d] when making the N [n].</p><p>Video 5.23 — The N [n] Consonant</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/apm</p><p>http://engl.io/apm</p><p>114</p><p>Video 5.24 — How to Make N [n], Relating to D [d]</p><p>This method often helps students relax the back of the</p><p>tongue. engl.io/app</p><p>Video 5.25 — N [n] vs. NG [ŋ]</p><p>This video explains the difference in tongue positions for</p><p>these two consonants. engl.io/aps</p><p>Video 5.26 — N [n] vs. NG [ŋ] Tes</p><p>In this video, we test your ability to identify the ending sound</p><p>based on the position of the tongue. engl.io/apv</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.17 — The N [n] Consonant.</p><p>You’ll hear the N consonant at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What</p><p>you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>n [n]</p><p>need [nid]</p><p>down [daʊn]</p><p>undone [ʌnˈdʌn]</p><p>Audio 5.17 — The N [n] Consonant</p><p>engl.io/apx</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.18 — N [n] vs. NG [ŋ].</p><p>You’ll hear minimal pairs for the N and NG consonants. What you hear on the</p><p>file is organized in this chart:</p><p>http://engl.io/app</p><p>http://engl.io/aps</p><p>http://engl.io/apv</p><p>http://engl.io/apx</p><p>115</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>n [n], ng [ŋ]</p><p>lawn [lɔn], long [lɔŋ]</p><p>sun [sʌn], sung [sʌŋ]</p><p>rain [ɹeɪn], rang [ɹæŋ] (which sounds like [ɹeɪŋ])</p><p>Audio 5.18 — N [n] vs. NG [ŋ]</p><p>engl.io/apz</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 5.19 — N [n] vs. NG [ŋ] Test.</p><p>You’ll hear five words or sounds in the minimal pairs below. You’re only hearing</p><p>one of the words (you’ll hear it twice), which one is it? Answers in the Answers</p><p>Appendix.</p><p>Audio 5.19 — N [n] vs. NG [ŋ] Test</p><p>1. [n] or [ŋ]</p><p>2. keen [n] or king [ŋ]</p><p>3. sane [n] or sang [ŋ]</p><p>4. gone [n] or gong [ŋ]</p><p>5. run [n] or wrung [ŋ]</p><p>engl.io/ar1</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>n: no [noʊ]</p><p>nn: inn [ɪn]</p><p>kn: know [noʊ]</p><p>gn: gnaw [nɔ]</p><p>http://engl.io/apz</p><p>http://engl.io/ar1</p><p>116</p><p>The H [h] Consonant</p><p>The H consonant is unique because it will never end a word. Though there are</p><p>words in American English that end in the letter H (fish [fɪʃ], with [wɪθ], high [haɪ],</p><p>which [wɪʧ], though [ðoʊ]), no words end in the [h] sound. It only occurs at the</p><p>beginning of a word (“happy”) or in the middle (“unhappy”).</p><p>The H sound is simply made by passing air through a slightly constricted throat.</p><p>If you ran hard, you would be breathing hard, panting. This sound is a very light,</p><p>easy pant.</p><p>Video 5.27 — The H [h] Consonant</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/ar3</p><p>http://engl.io/ar3</p><p>117</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.20 — The H [h] Consonant.</p><p>You’ll hear the H consonant at the beginning and middle of words. What you</p><p>hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>h [h]</p><p>hi [haɪ]</p><p>ahead [eˈhεd]</p><p>neighborhood [ˈneɪ bəәɹˌhʊd]</p><p>Audio 5.20 — The H [h] Consonant</p><p>engl.io/ar5</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled two ways in American English.</p><p>h: hi [haɪ]</p><p>wh: whole [hoʊl]</p><p>The Y [ j ] Consonant</p><p>http://engl.io/ar5</p><p>118</p><p>This sound is unique because it’s a part of the EW as in FEW Diphthong (“use”),</p><p>but it’s also a consonant sound (“yes”). This consonant is a ‘glide’ consonant,</p><p>which is actually considered a ‘semi-vowel’. The glide consonants help in linking,</p><p>which you’ll learn about in Chapter 8. No words in English end in this sound,</p><p>though many end in the letter Y (they [ðeɪ], by [baɪ], say [seɪ]). This sound is</p><p>only at the beginning of a word (“your”) or, rarely, in the middle (“unyielding”).</p><p>To make this sound, the tip of the tongue pushes the back of the bottom front</p><p>teeth. The jaw drops just a little bit and there is a little tightening in the throat.</p><p>The middle part of the tongue lifts and presses against the roof of the mouth in</p><p>an up and forward motion.</p><p>Video 5.28 — The Y [j] Consonant</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/ar8</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.21 — The Y [j] Consonant.</p><p>You’ll hear the Y consonant at the beginning and middle of words. What you</p><p>hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>y [j]</p><p>yes [jεs]</p><p>year [jɪəәɹ]</p><p>unyielding [ʌnˈjil dɪŋ]</p><p>Audio 5.21 — The Y [j] Consonant</p><p>engl.io/arb</p><p>http://engl.io/ar8</p><p>http://engl.io/arb</p><p>119</p><p>This sound is only spelled with the letter Y:</p><p>y: yes [jεs]</p><p>The W [w] Consonant</p><p>W [w] is the other glide consonant in American English. No words in English end</p><p>in this sound, though many end in the letter (know [noʊ], new [nu], law [lɔ]). This</p><p>sound is only at the beginning of a word (“water”), or in the middle (“unwind”).</p><p>To make the W [w] consonant, the lips must round. There is a little tightening in</p><p>the throat, just like the glide consonant Y. The tongue tip is forward, lightly</p><p>touching the back of the bottom front teeth. The back part of the tongue</p><p>stretches up towards the soft palate.</p><p>120</p><p>Video 5.29 — The W [w] Consonant</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/are</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.22 — The W [w] Consonant.</p><p>You’ll hear the W consonant at the beginning and middle of words. What you</p><p>hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>w [w]</p><p>west [wεst]</p><p>walk [wɔk]</p><p>unwind [ʌnˈwaɪnd]</p><p>Audio 5.22 — The W [w] Consonant</p><p>engl.io/arf</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled two ways in American English.</p><p>w: was [wʌz]</p><p>o: one [wʌn]</p><p>http://engl.io/are</p><p>http://engl.io/arf</p><p>121</p><p>The R [ɹ] Consonant</p><p>This is one of the hardest sounds for non-native speakers to make. It’s also very</p><p>hard to teach, because the sound is mostly defined by the tongue—but because</p><p>of the jaw and lip position, you can’t see the tongue.</p><p>If you stick your tongue out as far as you can, you’re making it long and skinnier.</p><p>For the R, you want to do the opposite, making it short and fatter. Do this by</p><p>pulling the tongue back and</p><p>up. The jaw only needs to drop a little bit for this</p><p>sound: more of a relaxation than a drop, really. The middle part of the tongue</p><p>can touch the middle part of the roof of the mouth, or the teeth on the upper sides</p><p>of the mouth. Corners of the lips come in so the lips can flare.</p><p>If you’re having a hard time with this sound, try starting with the mouth at rest.</p><p>With your mouth closed, lift the tongue so it’s touching the roof of the mouth, but</p><p>leave the tongue tip down so it’s touching the back of the bottom front teeth. You</p><p>122</p><p>should feel two contact points: the tongue tip touching the back of the bottom</p><p>front teeth, and the middle part of the tongue touching the roof of the mouth. Let</p><p>your jaw relax to drop a little, and slide the part of your tongue that is touching</p><p>the roof of the mouth back. It’s still touching the roof of the mouth, just further</p><p>back now. This will pull the tip up, so it’s no longer touching the back of the</p><p>bottom front teeth. It won’t be touching anything. Hold that position, feel it.</p><p>Then, flare the lips, and try the sound.</p><p>There is another position that can make the R sound. Compare the positions</p><p>below. The one on the left is the one you just studied (this is the way I make the</p><p>R). The one on the right is also a correct way to make this sound.</p><p>To make the R sound this way, curl the tip of the tongue up. It still shouldn’t</p><p>touch anything. Flare your lips to help shape the sound.</p><p>123</p><p>Common mistake: Some students just make the R sound in their own</p><p>language, and for many languages this sounds like the D or Flap T in</p><p>American English. It’s made by bouncing the front part of the tongue</p><p>against the roof of the mouth. This is a sound that can’t be held out, but</p><p>the American English R [ɹ] can be held out. Try to make the R sound.</p><p>Can you hold it out continuously? If not, you might be making it by</p><p>flapping the front of the tongue on the roof of the mouth. This will affect</p><p>the character of your English, making it more choppy and less smooth.</p><p>This will make it sound accented. There will be some exercises for</p><p>holding out the R in the next chapter on consonant clusters. If you tend to</p><p>flap the tongue for the R, always practice the R by holding it out in any</p><p>words you’re working on.</p><p>Video 5.30 — The R [ɹ] Consonant</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/arh</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.23 — The R [ɹ] Consonant.</p><p>You’ll hear the R consonant at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What</p><p>you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>r [ɹ]</p><p>right [ɹaɪt]</p><p>area [ˈεəәɹ i əә]</p><p>car [kɑɹ]</p><p>Audio 5.23 — The R [ɹ] Consonant</p><p>engl.io/arj</p><p>http://engl.io/arh</p><p>http://engl.io/arj</p><p>124</p><p>Sometimes people make a W [w] sound instead of an R [ɹ]. This happens when</p><p>the front of the tongue stays down and the back lifts. To make the R sound, do</p><p>the opposite. Lift the tongue tip so it doesn’t touch anything.</p><p>Video 5.31 — R [ɹ] vs. W [w]</p><p>See the difference in position and hear the difference in</p><p>sound. engl.io/arm</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.24 — R [ɹ] vs. W [w].</p><p>You’ll hear minimal pairs for the R and W consonants in the beginning position.</p><p>What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>r [ɹ], w [w]</p><p>rest [ɹεst], west [wεst]</p><p>rag [ɹæg], wag [wæg]</p><p>ray [ɹeɪ], way [weɪ]</p><p>Audio 5.24 — R [ɹ] vs. W [w]</p><p>engl.io/arp</p><p>http://engl.io/arm</p><p>http://engl.io/arp</p><p>125</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 5.25 — R [ɹ] vs. W [w] Test. You’ll hear five words or</p><p>sounds in the minimal pairs below. You’re only hearing one of the words (you’ll</p><p>hear it twice), which one is it? Answers in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>Audio 5.25 — R [ɹ] vs. W [w] Test</p><p>1. [ɹ] or [w]</p><p>2. rut [ɹ] or what [w]</p><p>3. raid [ɹ] or weighed [w]</p><p>4. ring [ɹ] or wing [w]</p><p>5. rail [ɹ] or wail [w]</p><p>engl.io/arr</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled two ways in American English.</p><p>r: run [ɹʌn]</p><p>rr: array [əәˈɹeɪ]</p><p>The L [l] Consonant</p><p>http://engl.io/arr</p><p>126</p><p>The L consonant has two types, Dark and Light. Unfortunately, dictionaries use</p><p>only one IPA symbol [l] for the two kinds, so you’ll need to learn when to make a</p><p>Light L and when to make a Dark L.</p><p>If an L comes before the vowel or diphthong in a syllable, then it’s a Light L. This</p><p>applies to the L in ‘lie’ [laɪ], because it comes before the AI as in BUY diphthong.</p><p>It also applies to ‘glass’ [glæs], because it comes before the AA as in BAT sound.</p><p>It also applies to ‘allow’ [əәˈlaʊ], because it is in the second syllable, and comes</p><p>before the diphthong (OW as in NOW) in that syllable.</p><p>The Light L is made by lifting the tongue so the tip is pointed up, touching the</p><p>roof of the mouth just behind the top front teeth. Alternately, some people make</p><p>this by pressing the tongue tip up against the bottom of the top front teeth. Then</p><p>it looks like a TH. In the photo below, the position on the left is the L with the</p><p>tongue tip at the roof of the mouth. On the right, you can see the tongue tip</p><p>coming through the teeth so it can press against the bottom of the top teeth.</p><p>Both will make the same L sound.</p><p>The L is a Dark L if it comes after the vowel or diphthong in a syllable. This</p><p>applies to the L in ‘feel’ [fil], which comes after the EE as in SHE vowel, and both</p><p>L sounds in ‘syllable’ [ˈsɪl əә bəәl]. In the first syllable, the L comes after the IH as</p><p>in SIT vowel, and in the last syllable, it comes after the schwa.</p><p>The Dark L can get a little confusing because it has two parts:</p><p>Part 1: The Dark Part.</p><p>This is made by pulling the back part of the tongue back. The tip stays forward,</p><p>so the tip is touching the back of the bottom front teeth. It’s also flat in the mouth,</p><p>127</p><p>not lifted. But the back part stretches back. This might feel a little funny, and it</p><p>makes a funny sound. This is the ‘dark’ sound.</p><p>Part 2: The Finish.</p><p>This is made just like the Light L, lifting the tongue tip to the roof of the mouth.</p><p>Most of the time, Americans will leave this part out and just make the Dark</p><p>part. The Dark part defines the Dark L more than the finish. I do this, for</p><p>example, with my name. I just pull the back part of my tongue back, the tongue</p><p>tip stays down, Rachel [ˈɹeɪ tʃəәl]. Leaving out the finish and just making the Dark</p><p>part of the Dark L will help you make this sound more simply and quickly.</p><p>Remember, as you learned in Chapter 3, the L is a syllabic consonant. That</p><p>means that when it’s in a syllable with the schwa, you don’t need to make a</p><p>schwa sound, just make the dark sound (mumble [ˈmʌm bəәl], able [ˈeɪ bəәl]).</p><p>Video 5.32 — The L [l] Consonant</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position. In it, I discuss both the Light and Dark L.</p><p>engl.io/aru</p><p>http://engl.io/aru</p><p>128</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.26 — The L [l] Consonant.</p><p>You’ll hear the L consonant at the beginning and end of words — both light and</p><p>dark. What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Light or Dark L?</p><p>l [l], l [l] Light, Dark</p><p>lean [lin] Light</p><p>lip [lɪp] Light</p><p>pull [pʊl] Dark</p><p>feel [fil] Dark</p><p>Audio 5.26 — The L [l] Consonant</p><p>engl.io/arw</p><p>When trying to make a Dark L, some non-native speakers make the OH as in NO</p><p>[oʊ] diphthong instead. The OH as in NO diphthong is made at the front of the</p><p>mouth, with the lips rounding. For the Dark L, let the lips relax. This sound is</p><p>made at the back of the mouth, when the back of the tongue pulls back.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.27 — L [l] vs. OH [oʊ].</p><p>You’ll hear minimal pairs for the L consonant and OH diphthong in the ending</p><p>position. There are not many of these minimal pairs in English that involve real</p><p>words — so the last one is not a word in American English, but a</p><p>mispronunciation. What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>http://engl.io/arw</p><p>129</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times)</p><p>l [l], oh [oʊ]</p><p>real [ˈɹi əәl], Rio [ˈɹi oʊ]</p><p>kneel [nil], neo- [ˈni oʊ]</p><p>special [ˈspεʃ əәl], speci-o [ˈspεʃ oʊ](not a word!)</p><p>Audio 5.27 — L [l] vs. OH [oʊ]</p><p>engl.io/arz</p><p>Another common mistake is mixing up L [l] and R [ɹ]. This happens at the</p><p>beginning of words, end of words, and in consonant clusters. These sounds look</p><p>different from both the side and the front, so you can check your mouth position</p><p>in a mirror.</p><p>As you work with words with R’s and L’s, focus on the tongue position. Both of</p><p>these sounds can be held out, so always hold them out for 3 or 4 seconds as</p><p>you’re working on complicated words. This will solidify the correct position.</p><p>Sometimes it even helps to hold your finger up to your cheek and make the</p><p>shape of the tongue with your finger. Make the connection between the sound</p><p>and the correct tongue position strong.</p><p>http://engl.io/arz</p><p>130</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.28 — R [ɹ] vs. L [l].</p><p>You’ll hear minimal pairs for the R and L consonants, at the beginning of words,</p><p>in clusters, and at the end of words. What you hear on the file is organized in</p><p>this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Light or Dark L?</p><p>r [ɹ], l [l] Light L</p><p>wrong [ɹɔŋ], long [lɔŋ] Light L</p><p>road [ɹoʊd], load [loʊd] Light L</p><p>flame [fleɪm], frame [fɹeɪm] Light L, cluster</p><p>ply [plaɪ], pry [pɹaɪ] Light L, cluster</p><p>title [ˈtaɪ dəәl], tighter [ˈtaɪ dəәɹ] Dark L</p><p>male [meɪl], mayor [ˈmeɪ əәɹ] Dark L</p><p>Audio 5.28 — R [ɹ] vs. L [l]</p><p>engl.io/as2</p><p>Video 5.33 — Comparing R [ɹ] and L [l]</p><p>See the different positions for making these sounds.</p><p>engl.io/as4</p><p>Video 5.34 — Listen and Repeat, R [ɹ] and L [l]</p><p>Test yourself: Can you identify the right sound based on</p><p>what you see? engl.io/as7</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 5.29 — R [ɹ] vs. L [l] Test.</p><p>You’ll hear five words or sounds in the minimal pairs below. You’re only hearing</p><p>one of the words (you’ll hear it twice), which one is it? Answers in the Answers</p><p>Appendix.</p><p>http://engl.io/as2</p><p>http://engl.io/as4</p><p>http://engl.io/as7</p><p>131</p><p>Audio 5.29 — R [ɹ] vs. L [l] Test</p><p>1. [ɹ] or [l]</p><p>2. rake [ɹ] or lake [l]</p><p>3. fry [ɹ] or fly [l]</p><p>4. green [ɹ] or glean [l]</p><p>5. litter [ɹ] or little [l]</p><p>engl.io/as9</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled two ways in American English.</p><p>l: love [lʌv]</p><p>ll: really [ˈɹi əә li]</p><p>http://engl.io/as9</p><p>132</p><p>Test Yourself: Non-Audio 5.2 — Match the Symbol to the Sound.</p><p>Make sure you’re familiar with the symbols of the American consonants. Match</p><p>the sound with the symbol. Answers in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>1. B</p><p>2. P</p><p>3. G</p><p>4. K</p><p>5. D</p><p>6. T</p><p>7. F</p><p>8. V</p><p>9. S</p><p>10. Z</p><p>11. SH</p><p>12. ZH</p><p>13. Unvoiced TH</p><p>14. Voiced TH</p><p>15. CH</p><p>16. J</p><p>17. M</p><p>18. N</p><p>19. NG</p><p>20. H</p><p>21. Y</p><p>22. W</p><p>23. R</p><p>24. L</p><p>a. [tʃ]</p><p>b. [l]</p><p>c. [s]</p><p>d. [ʒ]</p><p>e. [dʒ]</p><p>f. [m]</p><p>g. [h]</p><p>h. [ɹ]</p><p>i. [b]</p><p>j. [k]</p><p>k. [θ]</p><p>l. [v]</p><p>m. [ŋ]</p><p>n. [p]</p><p>o. [g]</p><p>p. [w]</p><p>q. [ð]</p><p>r. [d]</p><p>s. [ʃ]</p><p>t. [t]</p><p>u. [j]</p><p>v. [f]</p><p>w. [z]</p><p>x. [n]</p><p>Test Yourself: Non-Audio 5.3 — Which are American English IPA</p><p>Symbols?</p><p>Which symbols do not represent a vowel, diphthong, or consonant sound in</p><p>American English? Answers in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>1. [ɪ] 2. [o] 3. [ŋ] 4. [Ŋ] 5. [ ɲ] 6. [f] 7. [ɑ] 8. [ɸ] 9. [θ] 10. [i]</p><p>11. [ɮ] 12. [ɜ] 13. [ʋ] 14. [q] 15. [H] 16. [ɔ] 17. [ç] 18. [e] 19.</p><p>[ɒ] 20. [ ɟ]</p><p>133</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 5.30 — What Consonant do you Hear?</p><p>You’ll hear fifteen consonant sounds, each twice. Can you tell which one your</p><p>hearing? Answers in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>Audio 5.30 — What Consonant do you Hear?</p><p>engl.io/asc</p><p>http://engl.io/asc</p><p>134</p><p>Chapter 6</p><p>Consonant Clusters</p><p>Consonant clusters (also called consonant blends) are groups of two or more</p><p>consonant sounds together with no vowel or diphthong between. They can occur</p><p>at the beginning (street [stɹit]), middle (extra [ˈɛk stɹəә]), and end of a word (exact</p><p>[ɪgˈzækt]).</p><p>It’s important to note that we’re talking about sounds, not letters. ‘Thin’ does not</p><p>begin with a consonant cluster even though it begins with two consonant letters,</p><p>T and H. Those two letters make just one sound, [θ].</p><p>Beginning Consonant Clusters</p><p>Beginning clusters can have two or three sounds.</p><p>Initial two-sound consonant clusters:</p><p>[bl]</p><p>[bɹ]</p><p>[dw]</p><p>[dɹ]</p><p>[kl]</p><p>[kɹ]</p><p>[kw]</p><p>[fl]</p><p>[fɹ]</p><p>blow [bloʊ]</p><p>break [bɹeɪk]</p><p>dwell [dwεl]</p><p>drip [dɹɪp]</p><p>clean [klin]</p><p>crib [kɹɪb], Christmas [ˈkɹɪs məәs]</p><p>quick [kwɪk]</p><p>flow [floʊ]</p><p>friend [fɹεnd], phrase [fɹeɪz]</p><p>135</p><p>[gl]</p><p>[gɹ]</p><p>[pl]</p><p>[pɹ]</p><p>[sf]</p><p>[sk]</p><p>[sl]</p><p>[sm]</p><p>[sn]</p><p>[sp]</p><p>[st]</p><p>[sw]</p><p>[ʃɹ]</p><p>[tɹ]</p><p>[tw]</p><p>[θɹ]</p><p>glass [glæs]</p><p>great [gɹeɪt]</p><p>please [pliz]</p><p>price [pɹaɪs]</p><p>sphere [sfɪəәɹ]</p><p>ski [ski], score [skɔɹ], school [skul], square [skwεəәɹ]</p><p>slip [slɪp]</p><p>smell [smεl]</p><p>snow [snoʊ]</p><p>speak [spik]</p><p>stem [stεm]</p><p>swift [swɪft]</p><p>shred [ʃɹεd]</p><p>tree [tɹi]</p><p>twin [twɪn]</p><p>three [θɹi]]</p><p>Initial three-sound consonant clusters:</p><p>[stɹ]</p><p>[spɹ]</p><p>[skɹ]</p><p>[spl]</p><p>[skw]</p><p>street [stɹit]</p><p>spring [spɹɪŋ]</p><p>scream [skɹim]</p><p>splash [splæʃ]</p><p>square [skwεəәɹ]</p><p>If any of the clusters are difficult for you, break them down into their two separate</p><p>sounds and practice them with a pause, for example, ss — ff. Do this several</p><p>times, and think about what you have to change in your mouth during the pause</p><p>to make the second sound. Continue to make the sounds, shortening the pause</p><p>between. Hold out each sound longer than you should. Then practice making</p><p>the transition with no pause. Do it in slow motion. It’s important to always</p><p>practice tricky transitions slowly, holding out the sound before and after.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 6.1 — Beginning Clusters.</p><p>Imitate all of the beginning two-sound and three-sound clusters. They are in the</p><p>same order as above, followed by the example word given.</p><p>Audio 6.1 — Beginning Clusters</p><p>engl.io/at1</p><p>http://engl.io/at1</p><p>136</p><p>Focus: R-Clusters</p><p>R [ɹ] is one of the hardest consonants for non-native speakers, so it follows that</p><p>R-clusters can be challenging. When you begin working with the R-clusters, hold</p><p>out the R in the word as you practice. That will give you time to adjust if</p><p>necessary, and feel the right position. Practice holding it out while you slowly</p><p>count to three in your head: prrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrize. Remember, if you can’t do it</p><p>right slowly, you won’t be able to do it right quickly. Slow it down until it’s right;</p><p>give yourself time to prefect the tongue movement and lip rounding.</p><p>Another cluster that gives especially my Chinese students difficulty is the TR</p><p>cluster. The teeth are together and the tongue tip starts forward for the T, then it</p><p>pulls back for the R as the teeth part. If the tongue doesn’t move, it doesn’t</p><p>sound right.</p><p>Video 6.1 — Holding Out the R Sound</p><p>You will make a better R sound if you practice holding it out.</p><p>engl.io/at3</p><p>Video 6.2 — How to Make the SHR Cluster</p><p>Practice the [ʃɹ] cluster slowly to solidify your R tongue</p><p>position. engl.io/at6</p><p>Video 6.3 — How to Make the TR Cluster</p><p>A lot of students, especially from China, tend to drop the R</p><p>sound in this cluster. engl.io/at8</p><p>Tree, trial, train. When Americans say these words, they often sound like ‘chree’,</p><p>‘chrial’, ‘chrain’. ‘Drip’ and ‘drop’ can sound like ‘jrip’ and ‘jrop’. Why? It has to</p><p>do with the lip position of the R. The tongue position for [t] and [d] is very similar</p><p>to the tongue position for CH [tʃ] and J [dʒ]. The lip position for the [ɹ] is similar to</p><p>the lip position for [tʃ] and [dʒ]. So when we round the lips for the R early, as we</p><p>often do, it changes [t] to [tʃ] and [d] to [dʒ].</p><p>Video 6.4 — TR Sounding like CHR</p><p>This video shows you why ‘train’ sounds like ‘chrain’.</p><p>engl.io/ata</p><p>http://engl.io/at3</p><p>http://engl.io/at6</p><p>http://engl.io/at8</p><p>http://engl.io/ata</p><p>137</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 6.2 — R Clusters.</p><p>It helps, when working with the R sound and R clusters, to hold out the sound.</p><p>Hold the R sound for several seconds. There’s no such thing as too long! You’ll</p><p>hear each word three times, the second time with a long R. Practice every word</p><p>with</p><p>an R this way.</p><p>Audio 6.2 — R Clusters</p><p>brag [bɹæg]</p><p>credit [ˈkɹεd ɪt|]</p><p>problem [ˈpɹɑb ləәm]</p><p>free [fɹi]</p><p>engl.io/atc</p><p>Focus: Voiced or Unvoiced Consonants?</p><p>Students ask about consonant clusters where the second sound is unvoiced</p><p>(street [stɹit], speak [spik], ski [ski], for example). The question is, is that second</p><p>sound really unvoiced? Sometimes ‘speak’ can sound like ‘sbeak’. My answer:</p><p>It’s ok for it to sound a little voiced. That’s because the ‘voice’ of the next sound</p><p>is blending with that consonant, so it no longer sounds like a clear unvoiced</p><p>consonant. I tell my students to keep that sound light. If you make a clear,</p><p>strong B sound, instead of P, then it won’t sound right. This concept is discussed</p><p>in the second half of the video above, TR sounding like CHR.</p><p>Focus: [kw] Cluster</p><p>Just like with the R-clusters, you really have to round your lips for the second</p><p>sound of this beginning consonant cluster. Some students skip this step, and</p><p>words like ‘quick’ [kwɪk] end up sounding like ‘kick’ [kɪk]. The tongue tip does not</p><p>need to move between these two sounds, so you only have to focus on rounding</p><p>the lips. Exception: it’s ok to drop the [w] sound in ‘quarter’ [ˈkwɔɹ dəәɹ] so it</p><p>sounds like [ˈkɔɹ dəәɹ]. Most Americans do!</p><p>Video 6.5 — How to Make the [kw] Cluster</p><p>Take the time to round your lips.</p><p>engl.io/atf</p><p>Video 6.6 — How to Pronounce Quarter</p><p>Learn the shortcut of dropping the [w] sound — but don’t do</p><p>it for other words! engl.io/ads</p><p>http://engl.io/atc</p><p>http://engl.io/atf</p><p>http://engl.io/ads</p><p>138</p><p>Focus: S-Clusters</p><p>Speakers of Spanish and Portuguese can have a tough time with S-clusters.</p><p>These combinations don’t exist at the beginning of words in those languages,</p><p>and so those students want to put a vowel sound before. If Spanish or</p><p>Portuguese is your native language, try to break that habit. Words that begin</p><p>with S + a vowel sound are not uncommon, so I know you can do it!</p><p>Video 6.7 — How to Pronounce S-Clusters</p><p>Begin with a clean S sound, no vowel before it.</p><p>engl.io/atk</p><p>Middle and Ending Consonant Clusters</p><p>Though we can list the beginning consonant clusters, there are too many</p><p>possibilities for clusters in the middle of and at the end of a word. They can be</p><p>two-sound clusters (felt [fɛlt]), three-sound clusters (restroom [ˈɹɛst ɹum]), four-</p><p>sound clusters (offspring [ˈɔf spɹɪŋ]), five-sound clusters (silkscreen [ˈsɪlk skɹin]).</p><p>You can see how, especially as we get into compound words like ‘offspring’ and</p><p>‘silkscreen’, the consonants can really add up.</p><p>What makes them even more difficult is that some of these clusters involve stop</p><p>consonants. As you learned in the previous chapter, we often leave off the</p><p>release of these sounds, especially [t], so they sound like stops of air more than</p><p>actual sounds. The rule is, if the stop consonant is followed by another</p><p>consonant, we tend to not release it. So ‘meltdown’ will sound like ‘mel’—[quick</p><p>stop of air]—‘down’. There’s no clear L-T-D cluster there.</p><p>I’ve not seen a complete list of all possible middle and ending consonant clusters</p><p>in American English in any resource I checked. Below is a list of many, but</p><p>surely not all.</p><p>[dθ] — width [wɪdθ]</p><p>[dv] — advance [ædˈvæns]</p><p>[kp] — backpack [ˈbækˌpæk]</p><p>[kt] — fact [fækt]</p><p>[ft] — left [lεft]</p><p>[lb] — bulb [bʌlb]</p><p>[ld] — hold [hoʊld]</p><p>[ldʒ] — bulge [bʌlʤ]</p><p>[lf] — self [sεlf]</p><p>[lk] — milk [mɪlk]</p><p>[lm] — film [fɪlm]</p><p>http://engl.io/atk</p><p>139</p><p>[lp] — help [hεlp]</p><p>[ls] — pulse [pʌls]</p><p>[lt] — melt [mεlt]</p><p>[ltʃ] — mulch [mʌlʧ]</p><p>[lθ] — filth [fɪlθ]</p><p>[lv] — solve [sɑlv]</p><p>[mf] — triumph [ˈtɹaɪ əәmf]</p><p>[mp] — limp [lɪmp]</p><p>[nd] — mind [maɪnd]</p><p>[ndʒ] — change [ʧeɪnʤ]</p><p>[nt] — mint [mɪnt]</p><p>[ntʃ] — pinch [pɪnʧ]</p><p>[nθ] — month [mʌnθ]</p><p>[nz] — lens [lεnz]</p><p>[nzm] — transmission [tɹænsˈmɪʃ əәn]</p><p>[ŋk] — pink [pɪŋk]</p><p>[ŋgl] — English [ˈɪŋ glɪʃ]</p><p>[ŋθ] — length [lεŋθ]</p><p>[ɹb] — yearbook [ˈjɪəәɹˌbʊk]</p><p>[ɹʧ] — fortune [ˈfɔɹ ʧəәn]</p><p>[ps] — snaps [snæps]</p><p>[pθ] — depth [dεpθ]</p><p>[ɹθ] — birth [bɜɹθ]</p><p>[sk] — risk [ɹɪsk]</p><p>[sp] — grasp [gɹæsp]</p><p>[st] — least [list]</p><p>[sʧ] — question [ˈkwεs ʧəәn]</p><p>Video 6.8 — Practice Tip: NTH Cluster</p><p>Tom teaches you how to work on this cluster.</p><p>engl.io/atm</p><p>Video 6.9 — How to Make the TS Sound</p><p>Learn a shortcut to make these two sounds together, like in</p><p>the words: let’s, what’s, that’s, it’s engl.io/atp</p><p>http://engl.io/atm</p><p>http://engl.io/atp</p><p>140</p><p>Video 6.10 — Dropping T and D between Consonants</p><p>Have you ever noticed how most people don’t say the D in</p><p>‘grandma’? engl.io/akv</p><p>Video 6.11 — Study: Ending T Clusters in Real English</p><p>Notice when the T in an ending cluster is dropped and when</p><p>it’s pronounced. engl.io/atu</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 6.3 — Middle and Ending Clusters.</p><p>You’ll hear all of the middle and ending consonant clusters in the list above.</p><p>They are in order, followed by the example word given.</p><p>Audio 6.3 — Middle and Ending Clusters</p><p>engl.io/atw</p><p>Plural Nouns & -ed Endings</p><p>Making a plural noun, or adding an -ed ending to make a regular verb past tense,</p><p>often makes a consonant cluster at the end of the word. Very few concepts in</p><p>American English pronunciation have clear rules, but here, you’re in luck. We</p><p>have firm pronunciation rules for adding -s/-es and -ed.</p><p>Regular Plural Nouns</p><p>When is the ‘s’ pronounced [s] and when [z]? There are three cases to know.</p><p>The chart below separates the word endings by voiced, unvoiced, and special</p><p>cases. Remember that all vowels and diphthongs are voiced, so they all</p><p>follow the rule for a voiced ending, where the plural adds a [z] sound.</p><p>We’re talking about final sounds, not final letters. What’s important is that the</p><p>word ‘tube’ [tub], ends in the consonant sound [b], not the vowel letter ‘e’.</p><p>http://engl.io/akv</p><p>http://engl.io/atu</p><p>http://engl.io/atw</p><p>141</p><p>If the final sound is… Then the plural pronunciation is…</p><p>Voiced</p><p>[b]</p><p>[d]</p><p>[g]</p><p>[v]</p><p>[m]</p><p>[n]</p><p>[ŋ]</p><p>[l]</p><p>[ɹ]</p><p>[ð]</p><p>s = [z]</p><p>cube + s [kjubz]</p><p>bed + s [bεdz]</p><p>egg + s [εgz]</p><p>executive + s [ɪgˈzεk jəә dɪvz]</p><p>bomb + s [bɑmz]</p><p>son + s [sʌnz]</p><p>song + s [sɔŋz]</p><p>pill + s [pɪlz]</p><p>flower + s [ˈflaʊ əәɹz]</p><p>lathe + s [leɪðz]</p><p>Unvoiced</p><p>[p]</p><p>[t]</p><p>[k]</p><p>[f]</p><p>[θ]</p><p>s = [s]</p><p>tip + s [tɪps]</p><p>bit + s [bɪts]</p><p>trick + s [tɹɪks]</p><p>roof + s* [ɹufs]</p><p>month + s [mʌnθs]</p><p>Special Cases</p><p>[s]</p><p>[z]</p><p>[ʃ]</p><p>[ʒ]</p><p>[ʧ]</p><p>[dʒ]</p><p>s or es = [ɪz]</p><p>glass + es [ˈglæs ɪz]</p><p>size + s [ˈsaɪz ɪz]</p><p>wish + es [ˈwɪʃ ɪz]</p><p>garage + s [gəәˈɹɑʒ ɪz]</p><p>match + es [ˈmæʧ ɪz]</p><p>page + s [peɪ ʤɪz]</p><p>* Note: Plurals of words that end in -f or -fe usually change: drop the -f or -fe,</p><p>add -ves. Example: leaf [lif] — leaves [livz].</p><p>In the ‘Special Cases’ category, notice how the ending is not just a consonant</p><p>sound [s] or [z], but a vowel sound as well: [ɪz]. This means that the plural</p><p>ending does not just add a sound, but a new syllable. This syllable is always</p><p>unstressed, so make it very short.</p><p>Video 6.12 — How to Pronounce Plural Nouns</p><p>The rules for regular plural nouns.</p><p>engl.io/atz</p><p>http://engl.io/atz</p><p>142</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 6.4 — Plural Nouns.</p><p>You’ll hear example words from each of the categories above, twice. Notice how</p><p>the ending in ‘glasses’ and ‘sizes’ adds an extra syllable. Notice also how the [z]</p><p>ending is not a strong [z] like at the beginning of a word, but a weak sound.</p><p>Audio 6.4 — Plural Nouns</p><p>[z]: cubes, beds</p><p>[s]: tips, bits</p><p>[ɪz]: glasses, sizes</p><p>engl.io/au2</p><p>Remember these rules are for regular plural nouns, where you add -s or -es.</p><p>There are, of course, some irregular nouns that do their own thing. For example:</p><p>child — children</p><p>man — men</p><p>moose — moose</p><p>nucleus — nuclei</p><p>mouse — mice</p><p>Test Yourself: Non-Audio 6.1 — How is the Plural Ending Pronounced?</p><p>Using the rules above, figure out the right plural ending. Answers in the Answers</p><p>Appendix.</p><p>a. [z] b. [s] c. [ɪz]</p><p>1. rose</p><p>2. track</p><p>3. town</p><p>4. plant</p><p>5. plough</p><p>6. bath</p><p>7. sofa</p><p>8. wage</p><p>9. house</p><p>10. room</p><p>Regular -ed Endings</p><p>You’ll notice this chart looks similar to the chart above, but some of the sounds</p><p>have moved. Again,</p><p>to the IPA</p><p>symbol for each sound. engl.io/aae</p><p>http://engl.io/aac</p><p>http://engl.io/aae</p><p>7</p><p>Video 0.3 —The IPA: Consonants</p><p>This video goes over the consonant sounds of American</p><p>English with sample words. Pay special attention to the IPA</p><p>symbol for each sound. engl.io/aah</p><p>Video 0.4 —The IPA: Test Yourself</p><p>How well did you learn the sounds? Quiz yourself in this</p><p>video. engl.io/aam</p><p>The IPA helps a lot when it comes to writing sounds, but it’s not perfect. There</p><p>are some cases in American English where the IPA symbol used does not</p><p>represent the way Americans speak, but don’t worry. You’ll learn about these</p><p>special cases in this book. Additionally, you can look up the same word in</p><p>several dictionaries and not see the same IPA transcription. This is due to a</p><p>difference of opinion. Don’t panic. Pick the one that makes the most sense to</p><p>you, or that is in your favorite dictionary.</p><p>I use these symbols [ ] to let you know that what you’re seeing is IPA.</p><p>I will stress again: In general, you cannot look at a written word and know how to</p><p>pronounce it based on the letters. When you learn a new word, you have to learn</p><p>the pronunciation as well, by looking in a dictionary or asking a native speaker.</p><p>Though there are some pronunciation rules, many of them have exceptions that</p><p>are so important, or so many exceptions, that the rule isn’t very helpful.</p><p>To continue to make pronunciation complicated, some words are spelled</p><p>differently but pronounced the same. For example, the past tense of the verb ‘to</p><p>read’, I read this book yesterday, is pronounced the same way as the color red.</p><p>These are called homophones, and there are many in the English language.</p><p>AUDIO</p><p>This book comes with example audio. These are samples to illustrate the</p><p>pronunciation points, and to get you started on improving your accent. Listen</p><p>and repeat out loud many times. You can listen to each audio file online by</p><p>following its link, or by listening the files you downloaded with this book. The</p><p>links are clickable, but if your device does not support clicking, you can just type</p><p>the URL into your web browser. All of the links begin with engl.io/, and you can</p><p>type this into your browser with out http://.</p><p>http://engl.io/aah</p><p>http://engl.io/aam</p><p>8</p><p>VIDEO</p><p>This book references many of the free videos on the Rachel’s English YouTube</p><p>channel and website. The links are clickable, but if your device does not support</p><p>clicking, you can just type the URL into your web browser. All of the links begin</p><p>with engl.io/, and you can type this into your browser with out http://. The videos</p><p>have closed captioning, or subtitles. You can turn these off or on by clicking the</p><p>‘CC’ button at the bottom of the YouTube player.</p><p>If YouTube is blocked in your country, don’t worry. On the Rachel’s English</p><p>website, there is an alternate option. Just click the link “YouTube blocked?”</p><p>above the video.</p><p>PRACTICE</p><p>Wait! Practice isn’t in this book. It’s what you have to do. Reading this book,</p><p>watching the videos, listening once or twice to the audio files—these things won’t</p><p>change your accent very much. You have to practice what you learn. Practice</p><p>with the audio files many times. When you’re working on a concept, for example,</p><p>the IH as in SIT [ɪ] vowel, drill it for 10-20 minutes a day. Practice the same set</p><p>of words over and over until they’re comfortable and roll off your tongue</p><p>completely naturally while staying relaxed. Then do the same with another set of</p><p>words. Do you still need more to work with? Don’t worry, I’m working hard on</p><p>developing more materials for you. To make sure that you hear about any and</p><p>all learning materials that I develop, sign up for the mailing list.</p><p>Sign up for the Rachel’s English newsletter to make sure you get all of the latest</p><p>news on videos, books, courses, and more:</p><p>engl.io/nl</p><p>Be patient with yourself as you practice and work on your pronunciation—you</p><p>won’t transform overnight. However, with dedicated practice time, watching</p><p>videos and listening to audio, imitating and practicing out loud, you will improve.</p><p>And your listening comprehension will improve too. Make a goal: practice 20</p><p>minutes a day.</p><p>If you want guidance as you practice, Rachel’s English offers one-time accent</p><p>evaluations. This can be a great way to learn what you need to work on, and</p><p>how to do it. If you want a coach every step of the way, then lessons, also</p><p>offered by Rachel’s English, are a great option.</p><p>http://engl.io/nl</p><p>9</p><p>Currently, teacher Tom Kelley, who you’ll hear on the audio files in this book and</p><p>see in some videos, offers both lessons and evaluations through Rachel’s</p><p>English. He has trained as a singer and professional actor, getting a Master’s</p><p>Degree in Acting from Harvard University. He is an exceptional accent coach</p><p>and has been working with Rachel’s English students since 2012.</p><p>Lessons and Evaluations</p><p>Learn more about Tom and the evaluations and lesson</p><p>packages available from Rachel’s English.</p><p>engl.io/lessons</p><p>http://engl.io/lessons</p><p>10</p><p>Chapter 1</p><p>Getting Started: Placement</p><p>What are the most fundamental building blocks of language? The sounds that</p><p>make up that language? That’s where most people seem to want to start. What</p><p>about the melody and rhythm? These, in many ways, define the character of</p><p>the language more than the sounds. What about the placement? What is</p><p>placement anyway?</p><p>All three of these broad topics affect the other two—to try to work on one</p><p>exclusively before moving on to the next cannot achieve the goal of speaking</p><p>English like an American.</p><p>In this book, we will begin with an overview of all three before moving on to focus</p><p>on any one of them. As you improve in one area, you should find that the other</p><p>two areas also see improvement.</p><p>Let’s start with something a little unconventional…let’s not start with English. To</p><p>begin, we’re just going to imitate vocal sounds. There are two reasons for this:</p><p>1. to practice and improve imitation skills. A student with strong imitation skills</p><p>will end up sounding much more like an American than a student with poor</p><p>skills.</p><p>2. to practice and get comfortable with making new kinds of sounds. Even</p><p>students who are great imitators will only go so far with their spoken English if</p><p>they’re not comfortable using sounds and placement that feel ‘funny’, that are</p><p>outside of their native language.</p><p>11</p><p>What kind of student do you want to be? Decide now, it’s important:</p><p>! I will be a student who spends a lot of time and energy practicing only with</p><p>sounds and feelings that I am already comfortable with, that I already know</p><p>from my native language.</p><p>! I will be a student who spends a lot of time and energy practicing with every</p><p>weird sound and feeling I can come up with. I am willing to try things that</p><p>sound and feel foreign.</p><p>English is a foreign language; it should feel foreign. If it feels a lot like your</p><p>native language, then it probably doesn’t sound very American. Working with</p><p>completely new sounds and language concepts can be challenging and</p><p>uncomfortable as an adult. They can feel embarrassing. Generally, resistance</p><p>to discovering and using new sounds, and new language concepts (like</p><p>reductions), is the greatest barrier to sounding American, not actually</p><p>reproducing the sounds and characteristics of American English.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 1.1 — Imitation.</p><p>Remember, this isn’t English. You’ll hear random vocal sounds to practice</p><p>imitation. Each sound or nonsense word can be heard once, with a pause after</p><p>for you to repeat. Try to repeat everything exactly like you hear it. Experiment.</p><p>Don’t be afraid to sound crazy! Try closing your eyes and focusing on just the</p><p>sounds.</p><p>Audio 1.1 — Imitation</p><p>It’s not English, so you don’t need to worry about how you</p><p>sound! engl.io/ab1</p><p>What is engl.io.ab1? Type it into your web browser to listen to the audio online,</p><p>or listen to the file you downloaded with this book.</p><p>Placement</p><p>all vowels and diphthongs are voiced, so any verb ending in</p><p>those sounds will follow the rule for voiced sounds, and the -ed ending is</p><p>pronounced [d]. The rules here are based on the final sound of the verb in</p><p>infinitive form.</p><p>http://engl.io/au2</p><p>143</p><p>If the final sound is… Then the regular -ed ending is…</p><p>Voiced</p><p>[b]</p><p>[g]</p><p>[v]</p><p>[m]</p><p>[n]</p><p>[ŋ]</p><p>[l]</p><p>[ɹ]</p><p>[ð]</p><p>[z]</p><p>[dʒ]</p><p>[ʒ]</p><p>d or ed = [d]</p><p>rob (+ b) + ed [ɹɑbd]</p><p>wrong + ed [ɹɔŋd]</p><p>love + d [lʌvd]</p><p>claim + ed [kleɪmd]</p><p>lean + ed [lind]</p><p>long + ed [lɔŋd]</p><p>stumble + d [ˈstʌm bəәld]</p><p>dare + d [dεəәɹd]</p><p>bathe + d [beɪðd]</p><p>gaze + d [geɪzd]</p><p>manage + d [ˈmæn ɪʤd]</p><p>camouflage + d [ˈkæm əәˌflɑʒd]</p><p>Unvoiced</p><p>[p]</p><p>[k]</p><p>[f]</p><p>[s]</p><p>[ʧ]</p><p>[ʃ]</p><p>[θ]</p><p>ed = [t]</p><p>camp + ed [kæmpt]</p><p>pick + ed [pɪkt]</p><p>sniff + ed [snɪft]</p><p>miss + ed [mɪst]</p><p>snatch + ed [snæʧt]</p><p>wash + ed [wɑʃt]</p><p>sleuth + ed [sluθt]</p><p>Special cases</p><p>[t]</p><p>[d]</p><p>ed = [ɪd]</p><p>hunt + ed [ˈhʌn tɪd]</p><p>land + ed [ˈlæn dɪd]</p><p>Again, the ‘Special Cases’ category has a different ending. Here the -ed is not</p><p>just a sound, [t] or [d], but an additional syllable.</p><p>Video 6.13 — How to Pronounce -ed Endings</p><p>The rules for regular verbs in the past tense.</p><p>engl.io/au4</p><p>http://engl.io/au4</p><p>144</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 6.5 — Regular Past Tense.</p><p>You’ll hear example words from each of the categories above, twice. Notice how</p><p>the ending in ‘hunted’ and ‘landed’ adds an extra syllable.</p><p>Audio 6.5 — Regular Past Tense</p><p>[d]: loved, robbed</p><p>[t]: camped, picked</p><p>[ɪd]: hunted, landed</p><p>engl.io/au7</p><p>Test Yourself: Non-Audio 6.2 — How is the -ed Ending Pronounced?</p><p>Based on the rules above, figure out the right -ed ending for these words.</p><p>Answers in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>a. [d] b. [t] c. [ɪd]</p><p>1. stuff</p><p>2. wish</p><p>3. stay</p><p>4. hand</p><p>5. lift</p><p>6. care</p><p>7. rush</p><p>8. wander</p><p>9. match</p><p>10. bunt</p><p>We’ve covered a lot already, but now it’s time to dive into my favorite part of</p><p>American English pronunciation: rhythm and intonation!</p><p>http://engl.io/au7</p><p>145</p><p>Chapter 7</p><p>Rhythm and Intonation: Multi-Syllable Words</p><p>So far we have covered only very basic words, mostly 1-2 syllables. Many of the</p><p>most common words in English are only 1-2 syllables. (Actually, in that last</p><p>sentence, only ‘syllables’ had more than two syllables!) Even so, being</p><p>comfortable with longer words and saying them smoothly and with the right</p><p>rhythm and intonation is important for being easily understood and</p><p>communicating in American English.</p><p>You’ve already seen this chart in Chapter Two, but it’s important. Remember,</p><p>stress is more complex than just long and short syllables.</p><p>Stressed Unstressed</p><p>symbol [ˈ] [ˌ] or no marking</p><p>length longer shorter</p><p>intonation (or ‘pitch’ or</p><p>‘melody’)</p><p>Curve up, then down Flatter pitch, generally</p><p>lower than stressed</p><p>syllables</p><p>energy Full engagement of</p><p>voice, can be a little</p><p>louder</p><p>Less energy/air in the</p><p>voice (can sound crackly</p><p>at the end of a sentence)</p><p>In the text of this book ↷ ·</p><p>On-screen text in videos DA da</p><p>146</p><p>As you start to practice your pronunciation on longer words and sentences, it’s</p><p>important to keep in mind the idea of intonation and flow. The pitch of an</p><p>unstressed syllable should flow into the stressed syllable, and vice versa. So a</p><p>three-syllable word, with stress on the second syllable, should feel like this:</p><p>not like this:</p><p>Smooth and connected. Some languages are angular, but English is not. Think</p><p>instead of softness. The voice is always moving up or down, never flat. That’s</p><p>where exercises like the ‘uh’ patterns from Chapter Two come in handy—to</p><p>practice a smooth vocal line.</p><p>Let’s start with three-syllable words. As you already know, multi-syllable words in</p><p>English can only have one syllable that has primary stress. That means we have</p><p>three options for stress: DA-da-da, da-DA-da, da-da-DA.</p><p>First syllable stress: DA-da-da</p><p>Middle syllable stress: da-DA-da</p><p>147</p><p>Last syllable stress: da-da-DA</p><p>You can see the intonation of the voice rises smoothly towards and falls away</p><p>from a stressed syllable. Have these images in mind as you practice 3-syllable</p><p>words. When I have students that tend towards choppy and disconnected</p><p>speech, I have them move their arm in this smooth gesture as they practice</p><p>words out loud. It really does help!</p><p>Video 7.1 — Three-Syllable Words</p><p>Study the three kinds of three-syllable words, and hear</p><p>several examples for each. engl.io/av1</p><p>Video 7.2 — Three-Syllable Words Listening</p><p>Comprehension</p><p>When you hear a three-syllable word, can you identify which</p><p>syllable is stressed?</p><p>engl.io/av3</p><p>Some words have syllables that have secondary stress, marked by this symbol:</p><p>[ˌ]. These aren’t nearly as important as the syllable with primary stress. The</p><p>syllable with primary stress anchors the word. A syllable with secondary stress</p><p>will have a little of the up-down shape of the voice, but it’s not so different from</p><p>an unstressed syllable. If you’re not sure what to do about them, just make them</p><p>like the unstressed syllables.</p><p>If you come from a language where every syllable is the same length, it will help</p><p>to practice stressed and unstressed syllables separately. You already know from</p><p>Chapter Two how to stress a syllable: a little curve up then down in the voice,</p><p>more length, more volume.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 7.1 — 3-Syllable Words.</p><p>You’ll hear the words on the UH pattern and ‘da’. Then you’ll hear the stressed</p><p>syllable on its own, and the unstressed syllables on their own. Notice how the</p><p>unstressed syllables are much shorter, less clear, and quieter. At the end, put all</p><p>of the parts together for a perfectly pronounced word! Practice all of the words</p><p>below the same way, separating out the syllables. Make sure your stressed</p><p>http://engl.io/av1</p><p>http://engl.io/av3</p><p>148</p><p>syllables are clear, and your unstressed syllables are very fast. This will mean</p><p>simplifying the movements of the mouth, allowing the unstressed syllables to be</p><p>less clear.</p><p>Audio 7.1 — 3-Syllable Words</p><p>1. absolute [ˌæb səәˈlut]</p><p>2. everyday [ˌɜv riˈdeɪ]</p><p>3. computer [kəәmˈpju dəәɹ]</p><p>4. beautiful [ˈbju dɪ fəәl]</p><p>5. comfortable [ˈkʌmf dəәɹ bəәl]</p><p>engl.io/av5</p><p>da-da-DA</p><p>(or Da-da-DA)</p><p>3rd syllable da-DA-da 2nd syllable DA-da-da 1st syllable</p><p>absolute</p><p>eighty-one</p><p>everyday</p><p>fianceé</p><p>overcook</p><p>overflow (v.)</p><p>recommend</p><p>referee</p><p>thirty-nine</p><p>understand</p><p>volunteer</p><p>[ˌæb səәˈlut]</p><p>[ˌeɪ diˈwʌn]</p><p>[ˌɜv riˈdeɪ]</p><p>[ˌfi ɑnˈseɪ]</p><p>[ˌoʊv əәɹˈkʊk]</p><p>[ˌoʊv əәɹˈfloʊ]</p><p>[ˌɹɛk əәˈmɛnd]</p><p>[ˌɹɛf əәˈɹi]</p><p>[ˌθɜɹ diˈnaɪn]</p><p>[ˌʌn dəәɹˈstænd]</p><p>[ˌvɑl əәnˈtɪɹ]</p><p>burrito*</p><p>computer</p><p>December</p><p>imagine</p><p>important</p><p>November</p><p>October</p><p>procedure*</p><p>September</p><p>tomorrow*</p><p>vacation*</p><p>[bəәˈɹi doʊ]</p><p>[kəәmˈpju dəәɹ]</p><p>[dɪˈsɛm bəәɹ]</p><p>[ɪˈmæ ʒɪn]</p><p>[ɪmˈpɔɹt￨ əәnt￨]</p><p>[noʊˈvɛm bəәɹ]</p><p>[ɑkˈtoʊ bəәɹ]</p><p>[pɹəәˈsi dʒəәɹ]</p><p>[sɛpˈtɛm bəәɹ]</p><p>[təәˈmɑɹ oʊ]</p><p>[veɪˈkeɪ ʃəәn]</p><p>beautiful*</p><p>comfortable*</p><p>definite</p><p>general</p><p>graduate*</p><p>interview*</p><p>neighborhood</p><p>president</p><p>privacy</p><p>probably*</p><p>yesterday*</p><p>[ˈbju dɪ fəәl]</p><p>[ˈkʌmf dəәɹ bəәl]</p><p>[ˈdɛ fɪ nɪt￨]</p><p>[ˈdʒɛn əәɹ əәl]</p><p>[ˈgɹæ dʒu ɪt￨]</p><p>[ˈɪn təәɹ vju]</p><p>[ˈneɪ bəәɹ ˌhʊd]</p><p>[ˈpɹɛ zɪ dəәnt￨]</p><p>[ˈpɹaɪ vəә si]</p><p>[ˈpɹɑ bəә bli]</p><p>[ˈjɛs təәɹ ˈdeɪ]</p><p>Note: All words in this chapter followed by * are part of the Word of the</p><p>Week series. This means there is a video that goes over, in depth, the</p><p>pronunciation of each of these words. See the chart at the end of the</p><p>chapter for links to those videos.</p><p>When I work with advanced students, one of the final adjustments that we make</p><p>is making their short syllables really short. Often that is the last thing they need</p><p>to do to sound really natural when speaking American English. Keep this in mind</p><p>every time you drill a multi-syllable word. How short can you make the short</p><p>syllables? How simple? Remember, the more relaxed your mouth and neck are,</p><p>the more easily and quickly you can make these unstressed syllables. Practicing</p><p>the unstressed syllables on their own, like in Audio 7.1, is valuable.</p><p>http://engl.io/av5</p><p>149</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 7.2 — 3-Syllable Words Test.</p><p>Which syllable is most stressed in the ten 3-syllable words you hear? You’ll hear</p><p>each word twice. Answers in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>a. first — DA-da-da b. second — da-DA-da c. third — da-da-DA</p><p>Audio 7.2 — 3-Syllable Words Test</p><p>engl.io/av8</p><p>Now that you know how to practice the rhythm of words by breaking down the</p><p>syllables, let’s learn some rules to help you know which syllable has primary</p><p>stress in a word.</p><p>Two-Syllable Words</p><p>Most two-syllable nouns and adjectives will have stress on the first syllable:</p><p>Nouns: present [ˈpɹɛ zəәnt￨], coffee* [ˈkɔ fi], money [ˈmʌ ni], Google* [ˈgu gəәl]</p><p>Adjectives: present [ˈpɹɛ zəәnt￨], sorry* [ˈsɔɹ i], funny [ˈfʌ ni], awkward [ˈɔk wəәɹd]</p><p>Most two-syllable verbs will have stress on the last syllable:</p><p>Verbs: present [pɹɪˈzɛnt], decide [dɪˈsaɪd], arrange [əәˈɹeɪndʒ], divide [dɪˈvaɪd]</p><p>Did you notice how ‘present’ was listed for all three? There are words that can</p><p>be a noun, verb, and sometimes an adjective too! Stress helps determine which</p><p>meaning is correct. Other examples:</p><p>Address — noun — [ˈæ dɹɛs]</p><p>address — verb — [əәˈdrɛs]</p><p>produce — noun — [ˈpɹoʊ dus]</p><p>produce — verb — [pɹəәˈdus]</p><p>object — noun — [ˈɑb dʒɛkt]</p><p>object — verb — [əәbˈdʒɛkt]</p><p>record — noun — [ˈɹɛk əәɹd]</p><p>record — verb — [ɹɪˈkɔɹd]</p><p>perfect — noun — [ˈpɜɹ fɪkt]</p><p>perfect — verb — [pəәɹˈfɛkt]</p><p>http://engl.io/av8</p><p>150</p><p>project — noun — [ˈpɹɑdʒ ɛkt]</p><p>project — verb — [pɹəәˈdʒɛkt]</p><p>This is not limited to two-syllable words. Did you notice that above, for three-</p><p>syllable words with stress on the last syllable, I put (v.) after ‘overflow’? That’s</p><p>because the stress is different for the noun:</p><p>overflow — verb — [ˌoʊv əәɹˈfloʊ]</p><p>overflow — noun — [ˈoʊv əәɹˌfloʊ]</p><p>These are heteronyms. Heteronyms are words that are spelled the same, but</p><p>have different meanings and pronunciations.</p><p>Video 7.3 — Heteronyms</p><p>Study other heteronyms to get used to this concept.</p><p>engl.io/ava</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 7.3 — Verbs vs. Nouns.</p><p>Listen to the two examples on the audio file below. You’ll hear each set twice.</p><p>Can you hear the different stress?</p><p>Audio 7.3 — Verbs vs. Nouns</p><p>present (noun - first syllable stress), present (verb - second</p><p>syllable stress)</p><p>overflow (noun - first syllable stress), overflow (verb -</p><p>second syllable stress)</p><p>engl.io/avd</p><p>Suffixes</p><p>There are several word endings (suffixes) that determine the stress of a word.</p><p>Below, some of these are organized into tables that tell you where the stress</p><p>falls.</p><p>Primary stress is on the suffix:</p><p>-ee trustee [tɹʌˈsti]</p><p>guarantee [ˌgæɹ əәnˈti]</p><p>referee [ˌɹεf əәˈɹi]</p><p>notable exception: committee [kəәˈmɪd i]</p><p>http://engl.io/ava</p><p>http://engl.io/avd</p><p>151</p><p>-eer career [kəәˈrɪəәɹ]</p><p>engineer [ˌεn ʤəәˈnɪəәɹ]</p><p>volunteer [ˌvɑl əәnˈtɪəәɹ]</p><p>-ese Chinese [ʧaɪˈniz]</p><p>Japanese [ˌʤæp əәˈniz]</p><p>legalese [ˌli gəәˈliz]</p><p>-ette cigarette [ˌsɪ gəәˈɹεt]</p><p>kitchenette [ˌkɪʧ əәˈnεt]</p><p>silhouette [ˌsɪl uˈεt]</p><p>notable exceptions: etiquette [ˈεd ɪ kɪt], omelette [ˈɑm lɪt] (also</p><p>spelled ‘omelet’)</p><p>-ique technique [tεkˈnik]</p><p>unique [juˈnik]</p><p>critique [kɹɪˈtik]</p><p>Primary stress is on the syllable just before the suffix. Note some of these</p><p>suffixes can be either one or two syllables.</p><p>-cious (1 syllable) delicious [dɪˈlɪʃ əәs]</p><p>precious [ˈpɹεʃ əәs]</p><p>suspicious [səәˈspɪʃ əәs]</p><p>-eous (1 or 2 syllables) spontaneous (suffix is two syllables) [spɑnˈteɪ ni əәs]</p><p>outrageous (suffix is one syllable) [aʊt|ˈɹeɪ ʤəәs]</p><p>gorgeous (suffix is one syllable) [ˈgɔɹ ʤəәs]</p><p>-graphy (2 syllables) geography [ʤiˈɑg ɹəә fi]</p><p>biography [baɪˈɑg ɹəә fi]</p><p>photography [fəәˈtɑg ɹəә fi]</p><p>-ial (1 or 2 syllables) official (suffix is one syllable) [əәˈfɪʃ əәl]</p><p>material (suffix is two syllables) [məәˈtɪəәɹ i əәl]</p><p>potential (suffix is one syllable) [pəәˈtεn ʃəәl]</p><p>-ian (1 or 2 syllables) politician (suffix is one syllable) [ˌpɑl ɪˈtɪʃ əәn]</p><p>guardian (suffix is two syllables) [ˈgɑɹ di əәn]</p><p>historian (suffix is two syllables) [hɪˈstɔɹ i əәn]</p><p>-ible (2 syllables) possible [ˈpɑs əә bəәl]</p><p>responsible [ɹɪˈspɑn səә bəәl]</p><p>terrible [ˈtεɹ əә bəәl]</p><p>notable exception: words with –ligible, like eligible [ˈεl</p><p>ɪ ʤəә bəәl], negligible [ˈnεg lɪ ʤəә bəәl], intelligible [ɪnˈtεl ɪ</p><p>ʤəә bəәl]</p><p>152</p><p>-ic (1 syllable) economic [ˌεk əәˈnɑm ɪk]</p><p>metallic [məәˈtæl ɪk]</p><p>poetic [poʊˈεd ɪk]</p><p>notable exception: Catholic can be pronounced [ˈkæθ</p><p>əә lɪk]</p><p>-ical (2 syllables) political [pəәˈlɪd ɪ kəәl]</p><p>physical [ˈfɪz ɪ kəәl]</p><p>practical [ˈpɹæk tɪ kəәl]</p><p>-ience (1 or 2 syllables) experience (suffix is two syllables) [ɪkˈspɪəәɹ i əәns]</p><p>audience (suffix is two syllables) [ˈɔ di əәns]</p><p>convenience (suffix is one syllable) [kəәnˈvin jəәns]</p><p>-ient (1 or 2 syllables) patient (suffix is one syllable) [ˈpeɪ ʃəәnt]</p><p>sufficient (suffix is one syllable) [səәˈfɪʃ əәnt]</p><p>recipient (suffix is two syllables) [rɪˈsɪp i əәnt]</p><p>-ify (2 syllables) identify [aɪˈdεn təәˌfaɪ]</p><p>clarify [ˈklæɹ əәˌfaɪ]</p><p>notify [ˈnoʊ dəәˌfaɪ]</p><p>-ily (2 syllables) voluntarily [ˌvɑl əәnˈtεəәɹ əә li]</p><p>luckily [ˈlʌk əә li]</p><p>momentarily [ˌmoʊ məәnˈtεəәɹ əә li]</p><p>notable exception: satisfactorily [ˌsæd ɪsˈfæk təәɹ əә li]</p><p>-inal (2 syllables) marginal [ˈmɑɹ ʤəә nəәl]</p><p>medicinal [məәˈdɪs əә nəәl]</p><p>spinal [ˈspaɪn əәl]</p><p>-ion (1 syllable) religion [ɹɪˈlɪʤ əәn]</p><p>union [ˈjun jəәn]</p><p>region [ˈɹi ʤəәn]</p><p>-ional (2 syllables) professional [pɹəәˈfεʃ əә nəәl]</p><p>international* [ˌɪn təәɹˈnæʃ əә nəәl]</p><p>educational [ˌεʤ ʊˈkeɪ ʃəә nəәl]</p><p>-ious (1 or 2 syllables) various (suffix is two syllables) [ˈvεəәɹ i əәs]</p><p>serious (suffix is two syllables) [ˈsɪəәɹ i əәs]</p><p>religious (suffix is one syllable) [ɹɪˈlɪʤ əәs]</p><p>-itude (2 syllables) attitude [ˈæd ɪˌtud]</p><p>gratitude [ˈgɹæd ɪˌtud]</p><p>solitude [ˈsɑl ɪˌtud]</p><p>153</p><p>-itute (2 syllables) institute [ˈɪn stɪˌtut]*</p><p>constitute [ˈkɑn stɪˌtut]</p><p>substitute [ˈsʌb stɪˌtut]</p><p>-ity (2 syllables) community [kəәˈmju nɪ di]</p><p>opportunity* [ˌɑp əәɹˈtu nɪ di]</p><p>responsibility [ɹɪˌspɑn səәˈbɪl ɪ di]</p><p>-logy (2 syllables) technology [tεkˈnɑl əә ʤi]</p><p>apology [əәˈpɑl əә ʤi]</p><p>terminology [ˌtɜɹ məәˈnɑl əә ʤi]</p><p>-sion* (1 syllable) decision [dɪˈsɪʒ əәn]</p><p>version [ˈvɜɹ ʒəәn]</p><p>permission [pəәɹˈmɪʃ əәn]</p><p>-tion (1 syllable) vacation* [veɪˈkeɪ ʃəәn]</p><p>pronunciation* [pɹəәˌnʌn siˈeɪ ʃəәn]</p><p>application* [ˌæp lɪˈkeɪ ʃəәn]</p><p>-ual (2 syllables) individual [ˌɪn dəәˈvɪʤ u əәl]</p><p>gradual [ˈgɹæʤ u əәl]</p><p>casual [ˈkæʒ u əәl]</p><p>notable exception: spiritual [ˈspɪɹ ɪ ʧu əәl]</p><p>-uous (2 syllables) continuous [kəәnˈtɪn ju əәs]</p><p>ambiguous [æmˈbɪg ju əәs]</p><p>virtuous [ˈvɜɹ ʧu əәs]</p><p>Primary stress is two syllables before the suffix:</p><p>-al (1 syllable) industrial [ɪnˈdʌs tɹi əәl]</p><p>animal [ˈæn əә məәl]</p><p>hospital [ˈhɑs pɪ dəәl]</p><p>-ary (2 syllables) secretary [ˈsεk ɹɪˌt��ɹ i]</p><p>contemporary [kəәnˈtεm pəәˌɹεɹ i]</p><p>secondary [ˈsεk əәnˌdεɹ i]</p><p>-ate (1 syllable) separate [ˈsεp əәˌɹeɪt]</p><p>celebrate [ˈsεl əәˌbɹeɪt]</p><p>appreciate [əәˈpɹi ʃiˌeɪt]</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 7.4 to 7.6 — Word Stress and Suffixes.</p><p>The first audio file has stress on the suffix. Notice the shape of the suffix: it’s the</p><p>shape of a stressed syllable, with a curve up, then down in the voice. You’ll hear</p><p>154</p><p>the whole word, then the suffix two times, then the whole word again. Practice all</p><p>of the words in the table the same way, working on the suffix on its own, and</p><p>making it stressed.</p><p>For the next two audio files, stress is NOT on the suffix. Hear how those suffixes</p><p>are very fast, flat, lower in pitch and volume. Practice the rest of the words in</p><p>those tables just like the audio files, focusing on making the suffixes unstressed</p><p>and fast.</p><p>Audio 7.4 — Suffixes: Stress on the Suffix</p><p>-ee — trustee</p><p>-eer — career</p><p>-ese — Chinese</p><p>-ette — cigarette*</p><p>-ique — technique</p><p>engl.io/avf</p><p>Audio 7.5 — Suffixes: Stress just before the Suffix</p><p>-cious — delicious</p><p>-eous — spontaneous</p><p>-graphy — geography</p><p>-ial — official</p><p>-ian — politician</p><p>-ible — possible</p><p>-ic — economic</p><p>-ical — political</p><p>-ience — experience</p><p>-ient — patient</p><p>-ify — clarify</p><p>-ily — voluntarily</p><p>-inal — marginal</p><p>-ion — religion</p><p>-ional — professional</p><p>-ious — various</p><p>-itude — attitude</p><p>-itute — institute*</p><p>-ity — community</p><p>-logy — technology</p><p>-sion — decision</p><p>-tion — vacation</p><p>-ual — individual</p><p>-uous — continuous</p><p>engl.io/avf</p><p>http://engl.io/avf</p><p>http://engl.io/avf</p><p>155</p><p>Audio 7.6 — Suffixes: Stress two syllables before the</p><p>Suffix</p><p>-al — industrial</p><p>-ary — secretary</p><p>-ate — separate*</p><p>engl.io/avf</p><p>* ‘Cigarette’, ‘separate’, and ‘institute’ have Stop T’s on the audio. Though, in a</p><p>sentence followed by a vowel or diphthong, most Americans will often make a</p><p>Flap T.</p><p>Test yourself: Non-Audio 7.1 — Which Syllable has Stress?</p><p>All of these words follow the pattern of the suffixes above (none of them are</p><p>exceptions). Which syllable has primary stress (first, second, third, etc.)?</p><p>Because they all follow the rules above, you will know the stress based on the</p><p>suffix even if you don’t know the word! Answers in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>1. annotate</p><p>2. biology</p><p>3. commodify</p><p>4. barrette</p><p>5. anxious</p><p>6. acrylic</p><p>7. addressee</p><p>8. conditional</p><p>9. conspicuous</p><p>10. consideration</p><p>If you want more words to practice with for any suffix, use the internet. I</p><p>actually used it to write this section, to make sure I was using some of the</p><p>most common examples. Search “words that end in ary”, for example. I</p><p>like the MoreWords.com website because you can sort by how common</p><p>the words are, by length, or alphabetically.</p><p>Compound Words</p><p>Nouns that are compound words generally have stress on the first word. That’s</p><p>easy if the compound word is just two syllables, like ‘boathouse’ [ˈboʊt￨ˌhaʊs]</p><p>(‘boat’ [boʊt] + ‘house’ [haʊs]).</p><p>But what if the first or second word in the compound word has more than one</p><p>syllable? You should put the stress on the stressed syllable of the first word. So</p><p>the unstressed syllable of the stressed word will still be unstressed. For</p><p>http://engl.io/avf</p><p>156</p><p>example, ‘basketball’ [ˈbæs kɪt￨ˌbɔl] is ‘basket’ [ˈbæs kɪt|] + ‘ball’ [bɔl]. The</p><p>second syllable of ‘basket’ is unstressed, even though it’s part of the stressed</p><p>word of the compound word.</p><p>Let’s take a word that can be in both positions of a compound word: mother</p><p>[ˈmʌð əәɹ]. In ‘motherboard’, where it’s the first word, it will be stressed. But in</p><p>‘grandmother’, where it’s the second word, it won’t sound stressed. ‘Mother’</p><p>should not sound the same in these two words. In ‘grandmother’, it will be</p><p>quieter, have less shape and energy in the voice, and be lower in pitch, just like</p><p>the video ‘Download’ below.</p><p>The compound rule is stronger than the suffix rules above. Take the word</p><p>‘outpatient’ for example. It ends in the –ient suffix. That rule says the stress</p><p>would be on the syllable before, ‘-pa-’. But it’s a compound word: out·patient, so</p><p>the stress is on the first word, ‘out’: [ˈaʊtˌpeɪ ʃəәnt].</p><p>Watch the video on the compound word ‘download’, which you already saw in</p><p>Chapter 2. In this video, there is a comparison of ‘-load’, stressed and</p><p>unstressed. Notice the difference between ‘-load’, unstressed in ‘download’, and</p><p>‘load’, the stressed word.</p><p>Video 7.4 — How to Pronounce DOWNLOAD</p><p>Compare ‘load’ as an unstressed and stressed syllable.</p><p>engl.io/acf</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 7.7 — Compound Words.</p><p>The stress is always on the first word. You’ll hear the stressed syllable first, then</p><p>the whole word.</p><p>Audio 7.7 — Compound Words</p><p>airport</p><p>anyone</p><p>babysitter</p><p>background</p><p>engl.io/avp</p><p>More compound words to work with: Just like we’ve been doing with all the</p><p>words in this chapter, practice the stressed and unstressed syllables separately</p><p>first. This will help you clarify the difference between stressed and unstressed</p><p>syllables in speaking.</p><p>http://engl.io/acf</p><p>http://engl.io/avp</p><p>157</p><p>airport [ˈεəәɹˌpɔɹt]</p><p>anyone [ˈεn iˌwʌn]</p><p>babysitter [ˈbeɪ biˌsɪd əәɹ]</p><p>background [ˈbækˌgɹaʊnd]</p><p>baseball [ˈbeɪsˌbɔl]</p><p>basketball [ˈbæs kɪt|ˌbɔl]</p><p>boathouse [ˈboʊtˌhaʊs]</p><p>bookcase [ˈbʊkˌkeɪs]</p><p>bookstore [ˈbʊkˌstɔɹ]</p><p>bypass [ˈbaɪˌpæs]</p><p>carload [ˈkɑɹˌloʊd]</p><p>commonplace [ˈkɑm əәnˌpleɪs]</p><p>crosswalk [ˈkɹɔsˌwɔk]</p><p>dishwasher [ˈdɪʃˌwɑʃ əәɹ]</p><p>download* [ˈdaʊnˌloʊd]</p><p>earthquake [ˈɜɹθˌkweɪk]</p><p>everything [ˈεv ɹiˌθɪŋ]</p><p>eyeball [ˈaɪˌbɔl]</p><p>firefighter [ˈfaɪəәɹˌfaɪ dəәɹ]</p><p>grandmother [ˈgɹænˌmʌð əәɹ]</p><p>grasshopper [ˈgɹæsˌhɑp əәɹ]</p><p>honeymoon [ˈhʌn iˌmun]</p><p>household [ˈhaʊsˌhoʊld]</p><p>keyboard [ˈkiˌbɔɹd]</p><p>lifeboat [ˈlaɪfˌboʊt]</p><p>lifetime [ˈlaɪfˌtaɪm]</p><p>newsroom [ˈnuzˌɹʊm]</p><p>passport [ˈpæsˌpɔɹt]</p><p>peppermint [ˈpεp əәɹˌmɪnt]</p><p>popcorn [ˈpɑpˌkɔɹn]</p><p>railroad [ˈɹeɪlˌɹoʊd]</p><p>raincheck [ˈɹeɪnˌʧεk]</p><p>rattlesnake [ˈɹæd əәlˌsneɪk]</p><p>something [ˈsʌmˌθɪŋ]</p><p>sometimes [ˈsʌmˌtaɪmz]</p><p>sunflower [ˈsʌnˌflaʊ əәɹ]</p><p>teacup [ˈtiˌkʌp]</p><p>thunderstorm [ˈθʌn dəәɹˌstɔɹm]</p><p>underdog [ˈʌn dəәɹˌdɔg]</p><p>weekend [ˈwikˌεnd]</p><p>Initials</p><p>There is also a rule for word stress and initials. Famous people are sometimes</p><p>referred to by their initials, like MLK (Martin Luther King, Jr.) or JFK (John</p><p>Fitzgerald Kennedy). Additionally, many businesses or organizations are known</p><p>almost exclusively by their initials, like HBO (Home Box Office) and PBS (Public</p><p>Broadcasting Service). In these cases, the last letter is stressed:</p><p>PBS [pi biˈɛs]</p><p>JFK [dʒeɪ ɛfˈkeɪ]</p><p>Some letter names have more than one syllable, like W [ˈdʌb əәlˌju]. In these</p><p>cases, only the stressed syllable is stressed: BMW [bi ɛm ˈdʌb əәlˌju].</p><p>Watch this video for more examples.</p><p>Video 7.5 — Word Stress and Initials</p><p>No matter how many letters there are, stress is on the last</p><p>one. engl.io/avr</p><p>http://engl.io/avr</p><p>158</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 7.8 — Initials.</p><p>The last letter is stressed. You’ll hear that first, then the whole set. Practice the</p><p>same way, thinking about making the last letter stressed and the letter(s) before</p><p>unstressed.</p><p>Audio 7.8 — Initials</p><p>CVS [si viˈεs]</p><p>PBS [pi biˈεs]</p><p>LA [εlˈeɪ]</p><p>DHL [di eɪʧˈεl]</p><p>engl.io/avt</p><p>More initials to work with: Just like we’ve been doing with all of the words in this</p><p>section, practice the stressed and unstressed syllables separately first. This will</p><p>help you clarify the difference between stressed and unstressed syllables in</p><p>speaking.</p><p>HBO [eɪʧ biˈoʊ]</p><p>JFK [ʤeɪ εfˈkeɪ]</p><p>RFK [ɑɹ εfˈkeɪ]</p><p>ING [aɪ εnˈʤi]</p><p>PNC [pi εnˈsi]</p><p>ABC [eɪ biˈsi]</p><p>TV [tiˈvi]</p><p>AARP [eɪ eɪ ɑɹˈpi]</p><p>Note some names that are abbreviated like this aren’t pronounced by saying the</p><p>letters, but by making a word out of the letters, like NASA. This is pronounced</p><p>“nasa” rather than N-A-S-A: [ˈnæ səә]. Which way should you pronounce these</p><p>kinds of names? It varies from organization to organization. You’ll have to learn</p><p>which is which as you learn the names of organizations that use these kinds of</p><p>abbreviated names.</p><p>There were lots of words to work with in this section. Did you learn the main</p><p>point? Practice the stressed and unstressed syllables separately so you</p><p>can focus on how they’re different. Then put the whole word back together.</p><p>When you break something down into smaller parts to practice, it’s always</p><p>beneficial.</p><p>http://engl.io/avt</p><p>159</p><p>Word of the Week Videos featured above:</p><p>Video 7.6 — Burrito</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/avv</p><p>Video 7.7 — Should Burrito have an American</p><p>Pronunciation?</p><p>The first video on How to Pronounce Burrito sparked a</p><p>debate!</p><p>engl.io/avx</p><p>Video 7.8 — Procedure</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/avz</p><p>Video 7.9 — Tomorrow</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/aw1</p><p>Video 7.10 — Vacation</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/aw4</p><p>Video 7.11 — Beautiful</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/aw5</p><p>Video 7.12 — Comfortable</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/aw8</p><p>Video 7.13 — Graduate</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/awb</p><p>Video 7.14 — Interview</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/awd</p><p>http://engl.io/avv</p><p>http://engl.io/avx</p><p>http://engl.io/avz</p><p>http://engl.io/aw1</p><p>http://engl.io/aw4</p><p>http://engl.io/aw5</p><p>http://engl.io/aw8</p><p>http://engl.io/awb</p><p>http://engl.io/awd</p><p>160</p><p>Video 7.15 — Probably</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/awg</p><p>Video</p><p>7.16 — Yesterday</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/awk</p><p>Video 7.17 — Coffee</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/awm</p><p>Video 7.18 — Google</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/awn</p><p>Video 7.19 — Sorry</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/awp</p><p>Video 7.20 — International</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/aws</p><p>Video 7.21 — Opportunity</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/awt</p><p>Video 7.22 — Pronunciation</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/aww</p><p>Video 7.23 — Application</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/awx</p><p>http://engl.io/awg</p><p>http://engl.io/awk</p><p>http://engl.io/awm</p><p>http://engl.io/awn</p><p>http://engl.io/awp</p><p>http://engl.io/aws</p><p>http://engl.io/awt</p><p>http://engl.io/aww</p><p>http://engl.io/awx</p><p>161</p><p>Chapter 8</p><p>Linking</p><p>You’ve just learned how to say multi-syllable words like a native speaker, making</p><p>the stressed syllables sound different from the unstressed syllables. Wasn’t that</p><p>fun? Soon we’ll move on to doing the same thing with sentences. But first, we</p><p>need to talk about linking words together.</p><p>Have you ever noticed how words in American English run together? Most of</p><p>the time they don’t feel like separate words. This is exactly what you want to do</p><p>to sound more American. For some of you, like Spanish speakers, this won’t be</p><p>too hard. The words in your native language flow together quickly too. For</p><p>others, like Mandarin speakers, it will be a little harder. You’re used to fully</p><p>pronouncing each word, which might mean separating it just a bit from the other</p><p>words. In your experience, this is the best and most clear way to speak.</p><p>However, when you do this in English, it will not sound natural or American.</p><p>When to link</p><p>A general rule for linking is to link all the words together in the same thought</p><p>group. You can think of a thought group as words that will be separated when</p><p>written, for example, with a comma or a period. The following sentence has two</p><p>thought groups, one before the comma and one after:</p><p>And then I thought, how’s that going to work?</p><p>162</p><p>You’ll want to link the words ‘and then I thought’ so that they flow together and</p><p>sound like one word, one thought. Put a small pause, and then link ‘how’s that</p><p>going to work’.</p><p>Listen: Audio 8.1 — Thought Groups.</p><p>You’ll hear a sentence with two thought groups. Can you hear the small pause</p><p>between the thought groups?</p><p>Audio 8.1 — Thought Groups</p><p>And then I thought, how’s that going to work?</p><p>engl.io/ax1</p><p>It’s true that many Americans, myself included, sometimes ignore these pauses</p><p>in speaking. Where they would write a comma or period, they might put no break</p><p>in speaking. Think of ‘thought groups’ as a general guideline to help you</p><p>structure linking and pauses.</p><p>There are three ways you can link words.</p><p>1. Linking Vowel to Vowel</p><p>Linking Vowel to Vowel refers to words that link where the first one ends in a</p><p>vowel (or diphthong) and the next one begins with a vowel (or diphthong). Here</p><p>are some examples:</p><p>my own [maɪ‿oʊn]</p><p>stay awhile [steɪ‿əәˈwaɪl]</p><p>why is [waɪ‿ɪz]</p><p>Remember, we’re always talking about sounds and not letters. Let’s look at</p><p>‘three hours’. The first letter of ‘hours’ is a consonant, H. But the first sound is a</p><p>diphthong, OW as in NOW [aʊ]. So linking these two words is a Vowel to Vowel</p><p>link: [θɹi‿aʊəәɹz].</p><p>Video 8.1 — Linking Vowel to Vowel</p><p>Vowel to vowel linking is an easy way to make your speech</p><p>more smooth and American. engl.io/ax4</p><p>http://engl.io/ax1</p><p>http://engl.io/ax4</p><p>163</p><p>Glide Consonants to Help Link</p><p>You may find it works well to think of putting a glide consonant (Y or W) between</p><p>an ending vowel and a beginning vowel when linking. This will help you connect</p><p>the two words. Americans do it without thinking about it.</p><p>If the first sound is [i], [aɪ], [eɪ], or [ɔɪ], add a Y sound [j] to connect:</p><p>[i]: the apple [ði‿ˈjæ pəәl]</p><p>[ɔɪ]: toy airplane [tɔɪ‿ˈjɛəәɹ pleɪn]</p><p>[aɪ]: my uncle [maɪ‿ˈjʌŋ kəәl]</p><p>[eɪ]: say it [seɪ‿jɪt]</p><p>If the first sound is [u], [aʊ], [oʊ], or [ju] add a W sound [w] to connect:</p><p>[u]: blue automobile [blu‿ˈwɔ dəә məә bil]</p><p>[aʊ]: how about [haʊ‿wəәˈbaʊt]</p><p>[oʊ]: slow animal [sloʊ‿ˈwæ nəә məәl]</p><p>[ju]: few others [fju‿ˈwʌð əәɹz]</p><p>What does the symbol ‿ mean? That’s something I use to show two</p><p>words that link together. Of course, all words in a thought group should</p><p>link together! I use it for the cases where it’s extra easy to feel the link,</p><p>like in a linking vowel to vowel or linking consonant to vowel case.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 8.2 — Linking Vowel to Vowel.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase, then the vowel to vowel link three times, the second time</p><p>in slow motion. Feel the link through the glide, which has been added in IPA, in</p><p>slow motion. Then you’ll hear the phrase again. Repeat in the pauses.</p><p>Audio 8.2 — Linking Vowel to Vowel</p><p>The apple is fresh: the apple [ði‿ˈjæ pəәl]</p><p>The toy airplane broke: toy airplane [tɔɪ‿ˈjɛəәɹ pleɪn]</p><p>My uncle is funny: my uncle [maɪ‿ˈjʌŋ kəәl]</p><p>Say it quickly: say it [seɪ‿jɪt]</p><p>The blue automobile is the fastest: blue automobile</p><p>[blu‿ˈwɔ dəә məә bil]</p><p>How about this one: how about [haʊ‿wəәˈbaʊt]</p><p>The slow animal was caught: slow animal [sloʊ‿ˈwæ nəә</p><p>məәl]</p><p>engl.io/ax7</p><p>http://engl.io/ax7</p><p>164</p><p>In all other cases, just connect the vowel sounds, without a glide consonant.</p><p>[ɑ]: grandpa eats [ˈgɹænd pɑ‿its]</p><p>[ɔ]: law is [lɔ‿ɪz]</p><p>[əә]: idea Anna [aɪˈdi əә‿ˈæn əә]</p><p>Notice some vowels don’t come at the ends of words in American English: AA as</p><p>in BAT [æ], UR as in BIRD [ɜ], EH as in BED [ɛ], IH as in SIT [ɪ], UH as in PUSH</p><p>[ʊ], UH as in BUTTER [ʌ].</p><p>2. Linking Consonant to Vowel</p><p>Linking consonant to vowel refers to words that link where the first one ends in a</p><p>consonant and the next one begins with a vowel (or diphthong) sound. These</p><p>are really fun. It’s my favorite kind of linking because it makes new ‘words’ that</p><p>aren’t words at all:</p><p>Ten hours a day → Teh_nower_zuh_day [tɛ‿ˈnaʊ əәɹ‿zəә‿deɪ]</p><p>‘Nower’ isn’t a word, but if you think of it as a word, it will help link ‘ten’ to ‘hour’</p><p>so it will be wonderfully linked and smooth!</p><p>Another example: Forget about it. → forgeh_duh_bou_dit [fəәɹˈgɜ‿dəә‿ˈbaʊ‿dɪt￨]</p><p>Wait. What?! How did the T’s in ‘Forget about it’ turn into D’s? Remember, the</p><p>letter T will be pronounced like a Flap T when it comes between two vowel or</p><p>diphthong sounds (like ‘pretty’), or after an R and before a vowel or diphthong</p><p>sound (like ‘party’). That rule works not only within a word, but also within a</p><p>sentence when an ending T links into another word.</p><p>That means when a word ends in a vowel or diphthong + T, and the next word in</p><p>the thought group begins with a vowel or diphthong, make the T a Flap T [d] and</p><p>link the words: about it [əә‿ˈbaʊ‿dɪt￨]</p><p>Also, when a word ends in R + T, and the next word in the thought group begins</p><p>with a vowel or diphthong, make the T a Flap T [d] and link the words: sort of</p><p>[sɔɹ‿dəә].</p><p>Video 8.2 — Linking Consonant to Vowel</p><p>Consonant to vowel linking is an easy way to make your</p><p>speech more smooth and American. engl.io/ax9</p><p>http://engl.io/ax9</p><p>165</p><p>Video 8.3 — Using a Flap T to Link Words</p><p>The Flap T connects words in many common phrases in</p><p>American English. engl.io/axa</p><p>Video 8.4 — My Summer Vacation</p><p>See examples of linking consonant to vowel in real</p><p>American English conversation. engl.io/axd</p><p>Video 8.5 — Got it</p><p>Study how the Flap T links ‘got’ and ‘it’ in this phrase.</p><p>engl.io/axf</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 8.3 — Linking Consonant to Vowel.</p><p>You’ll hear the sentence, then the link of consonant to vowel 4 times and the</p><p>sentence two more times.</p><p>Audio 8.3 — Linking Consonant to Vowel</p><p>That’s what I thought: what I [wʌ‿daɪ]</p><p>I thought about it: thought about [θɔ‿dəәˈbaʊt], about it</p><p>[eˈbaʊ‿dɪt|]</p><p>Is it time?: is it [ɪ‿zɪt]</p><p>engl.io/axh</p><p>3. Linking Consonant to Consonant</p><p>Linking consonant to consonant refers to</p><p>words that link where the first word</p><p>ends in a consonant and the next word begins with a consonant. This kind of</p><p>linking is the hardest because some consonants don’t link well. Just think of</p><p>making them with no gap or release in between. Practice the two sounds</p><p>separately first, then go straight from one sound to the next, thinking about what</p><p>has to change—just like with the consonant clusters we studied in Chapter 6.</p><p>Remember: we’re talking about sounds and not letters.</p><p>Example: tough one [tʌf‿wʌn]</p><p>First practice the F, fffff, then the W. What changes? The lip position changes.</p><p>First, the top lip lifts so the bottom lip can touch the bottom of the top front teeth:</p><p>fffff. Then the lips round into a tight circle. What about the tongue? It’s relaxed</p><p>http://engl.io/axa</p><p>http://engl.io/axd</p><p>http://engl.io/axf</p><p>http://engl.io/axh</p><p>166</p><p>for the [f] sound, but for the [w] sound, the tongue lifts in the back. Think about</p><p>these changes as you say the two sounds together with no break. Then say the</p><p>two words, ‘tough one’. Practice this way, slowly, for all consonant combinations</p><p>that give you trouble.</p><p>Video 8.6 — Linking Consonant to Consonant</p><p>This kind of linking is the least clear, but you can practice</p><p>any combination slowly. engl.io/axk</p><p>When it comes to linking consonant to consonant, I get the most questions on the</p><p>TH. As you already know, the tongue position for the TH is unlike any other, the</p><p>tongue tip comes through the teeth. If linking a TH sound is tough for you, it’s</p><p>important to slow things down as you practice it. Some people say “this is hard”</p><p>or “I don’t understand how to do this” so they rush through it. Do the opposite! It</p><p>will only become comfortable if you slow it down and understand the movement</p><p>that needs to happen to move from one sound to the next. Since the tongue tip</p><p>doesn’t come far out of the teeth for the TH, often the movement is quite small.</p><p>Doing it over and over will help make it more natural, and with more relaxation.</p><p>Video 8.7 — Linking and the TH</p><p>The TH is hard, but slow practice will make it easier to link</p><p>this sound to others. engl.io/axm</p><p>If the ending consonant of one word is the same as the beginning consonant of</p><p>the next word, you don’t have to make two separate sounds.</p><p>Examples: bus stop, stuff for, mom makes, phone number</p><p>Video 8.8 — Road Trip</p><p>You’ll hear the example ‘gas station’ in this video, linked</p><p>together with just one S sound. engl.io/axp</p><p>How do stop consonants fit into linking? As you know, stop consonants stop the</p><p>airflow. There’s a little pause or lift in the vocal line; there’s no connection into</p><p>the next sound. However, it’s not a big break. Even with the small pause, the</p><p>flow of the voice can still move forward.</p><p>http://engl.io/axk</p><p>http://engl.io/axm</p><p>http://engl.io/axp</p><p>167</p><p>Video 8.9 — What time?</p><p>Study connecting words with a Stop T in this phrase study.</p><p>engl.io/axr</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 8.4 — Linking the Stop T to a Consonant.</p><p>You’ll hear each sentence, then the Stop T consonant to consonant ‘link’ three</p><p>times, then the sentence again twice. Notice there is a very small gap between</p><p>the words, but the flow of the sentence still moves forward.</p><p>Audio 8.4 — Linking the Stop T to a Consonant</p><p>It was raining: it was [ɪt￨ wəәz]</p><p>Wait for me: wait for [weɪt￨ fəәɹ]</p><p>Let me see that: let me [lεt￨ mi]</p><p>I got Dad a gift: got Dad [gɑt￨ dæd]</p><p>engl.io/axu</p><p>Test yourself: Non-Audio 8.1 — Which kind of linking is it?</p><p>Remember to think about sounds, not letters. Answers in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>a. Vowel to Vowel b. Consonant to Vowel c. Consonant to Consonant</p><p>1. feel like</p><p>2. shut up</p><p>3. I’m on</p><p>4. some more</p><p>5. now I</p><p>6. although I</p><p>7. raise a</p><p>8. gave my</p><p>9. need a</p><p>10. stay around</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 8.5 — Which Phrase is Linked?</p><p>You’ll hear five phrases. Some are linked, and some are not. Which phrases are</p><p>linked? Listen to the whole audio file once first and think about the difference in</p><p>what you’re hearing. Do you hear the smooth quality in the linked phrases?</p><p>Keep this in mind as you practice anything out loud. Answers in the Answers</p><p>Appendix.</p><p>a. linked b. not linked</p><p>http://engl.io/axr</p><p>http://engl.io/axu</p><p>168</p><p>Audio 8.5 — Which Phrase is Linked?</p><p>engl.io/axw</p><p>When you speak American English, you want all the words of a thought group to</p><p>flow together. They should not feel like separate words, but one long word of</p><p>connected sounds. Linking words together is an important part of the character</p><p>of American English. Keep this in mind as you work through the next chapter,</p><p>where you’ll be putting words together.</p><p>http://engl.io/axw</p><p>169</p><p>Chapter 9</p><p>Rhythm and Intonation: Stressed Words</p><p>Now you’re ready to study the rhythm and intonation of sentences. You’ve</p><p>already learned some important points:</p><p>• linking and flow: the melody of English is smooth, not angular or choppy, with</p><p>a forward flow of the voice.</p><p>• intonation: the melody or shape of a stressed syllable goes up and then down</p><p>in a curve, like this: ↷. Unstressed syllables will be flatter and lower in pitch.</p><p>• rhythm: stressed syllables are longer, louder, and have more energy in the</p><p>voice. Unstressed syllables are very quick and are less clear.</p><p>All of these points apply to whole phrases. In fact, by working on three-syllable</p><p>words in Chapter Seven, you’ve already laid the groundwork for three-syllable</p><p>phrases.</p><p>Let’s look at the example da-DA-da. This is the stress pattern of ‘computer’,</p><p>‘example’, ‘another’. It’s also the stress pattern for the phrases ‘I want it,’ ‘I need</p><p>it’, ‘I saw you’, and ‘You know it’. Actually, the flow, rhythm, and intonation of</p><p>these words and phrases should be exactly the same. The words are made up</p><p>of three syllables, and the phrases are made up of three syllables, three 1-</p><p>syllable words. Even though they are three separate words, they should flow</p><p>together just as much as the three syllables of the longer words.</p><p>170</p><p>Video 9.1 — Three-Syllable Phrases</p><p>Three-syllable words and three-syllable phrases should feel</p><p>the same. engl.io/ay2</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 9.1 — Three-Syllable Words and Phrases.</p><p>You’ll hear the three different stress patterns for three-syllable words and</p><p>phrases, then an example word and phrase for each. Notice how the intonation</p><p>and stress, the character of the phrases, is the same as for the words: the “uh”</p><p>and da-da-DA patterns sound the same. The phrases should feel the same as</p><p>the words: connected and flowing together. The stressed syllable is higher in</p><p>pitch—with the up and down shape—and more fully pronounced.</p><p>The other syllables either lead up to or fall away from it.</p><p>Audio 9.1 — Three-Syllable Words and Phrases</p><p>1. da-DA-da: example [ɪgˈzæm pəәl], I saw you [aɪˈsɔ ju]</p><p>2. da-da-DA: recommend [ˌɹεk əәˈmεnd], I don’t know [aɪ</p><p>doʊˈnoʊ]</p><p>3. DA-da-da: yesterday [ˈjεs təәɹˌdeɪ], stay with me [ˈsteɪ</p><p>wɪθ mi]</p><p>engl.io/ay5</p><p>You know how to find out which syllable is stressed in a word: look it up in a</p><p>dictionary and look for the [ˈ] symbol, or listen to a native speaker and listen for</p><p>the syllable that is the most clear, longest, and highest in pitch. But how do you</p><p>know which words should be stressed in a sentence? This is where knowing</p><p>some grammar will come in handy.</p><p>We can break words in American English into two categories: Content Words</p><p>and Function Words. Generally, content words will be stressed in American</p><p>English, and function words unstressed.</p><p>Content Words</p><p>Content words are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. They carry the most</p><p>important information, the most meaning. Since they are the stressed words in a</p><p>sentence, that means their stressed syllables should be the longest, loudest,</p><p>clearest syllables of the sentence. They should have the up-down shape of a</p><p>stressed syllable ↷.</p><p>http://engl.io/ay2</p><p>http://engl.io/ay5</p><p>171</p><p>For example, “When can we go?” When is an adverb, a content word. Can is a</p><p>helping verb, not a</p><p>main verb, so it’s a function word (you’ll learn more about that</p><p>in the next chapter). We is a pronoun, a function word. Go is the main verb, so</p><p>it’s a content word. We have two content words: when and go. If I said just the</p><p>words “When go”, the meaning would still be clear, because they are the words</p><p>with the content of my thought. If I said “Can we”, the meaning is less clear: I’m</p><p>hoping we can do something, but what? Function words, rather than including</p><p>actual content, relate content words to each other within the sentence.</p><p>Some common content words are:</p><p>Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs</p><p>books [bʊks] run [ɹʌn] blue [blu] quickly [ˈkwɪk li]</p><p>school [skul] sat [sæt] old [oʊld] always [ˈɔl weɪz]</p><p>dinner [ˈdɪn əәɹ] eat [it] happy [ˈhæp i] often [ˈɔ fəәn]</p><p>store [stɔɹ] walk [wɔk] used [juzd] really* [ˈɹi li]</p><p>people [ˈpi pəәl] tell [tεl] helpful* [ˈhεlp fəәl] definitely*</p><p>[ˈdεf əә nɪt| li]</p><p>report [ɹɪˈpɔɹt|] whisper [ˈwɪs pəәɹ] sorry* [ˈsɑɹ i] finally [ˈfaɪn əәl i]</p><p>subway [ˈsʌbˌweɪ] slept [slεpt] disappointed</p><p>[ˌdɪs əәˈpɔɪn tɪd]</p><p>usually [ˈju ʒu əәl i]</p><p>table [ˈteɪ bəәl] read [ɹid] excited [ɪkˈsaɪ</p><p>dɪd]</p><p>very* [ˈvεɹ i]</p><p>door [dɔɹ] heard [hɜɹd] favorite* [ˈfeɪv ɹɪt] probably*</p><p>[ˈpɹɑb əә bli]</p><p>shoes [ʃuz] know [noʊ] beautiful*</p><p>[ˈbju dəә fəәl]</p><p>occasionally</p><p>[əәˈkeɪ ʒəә nəәl i]</p><p>Note: All words in this chapter followed by * are part of the Word of the</p><p>Week series. This means there is a video that goes over, in depth, the</p><p>pronunciation of each of these words. See the chart at the end of the</p><p>chapter for links to those videos.</p><p>As you probably noticed in the chart above, many content words have more than</p><p>one syllable. That means they have an unstressed syllable. What does it mean</p><p>to have an unstressed syllable in a stressed word?</p><p>172</p><p>Unstressed syllables, even in stressed words, are just unstressed syllables.</p><p>Nothing special! They should still be very quick, flatter, quieter, and with less</p><p>energy in the voice.</p><p>Video 9.2 — Content Words</p><p>See a video explanation of the four kinds of content words:</p><p>verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. engl.io/ay8</p><p>Video 9.3 — Verbs</p><p>This video goes over one type of content words, verbs.</p><p>engl.io/aya</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 9.2 — Content Words.</p><p>You’ll hear each word twice. Many of them are just one syllable. Notice how that</p><p>syllable is clear and has the melodic shape of a stressed syllable, an up-down</p><p>shape ↷. The other words are two-syllable words. Again, the stressed syllable is</p><p>clear and has the up-down shape of a stressed syllable—stressed syllables in</p><p>content words must be clear. Imitate this shape of the voice. The unstressed</p><p>syllables are noticeably shorter and less clear.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 9.3 — Content Words, Slow Motion.</p><p>You’ll hear each word once, slowed down to 50% speed. The slower speed</p><p>makes it easier to study the intonation: the curve up then down in the voice ↷.</p><p>The downward curve is more obvious and longer. Repeat the words back in slow</p><p>motion and feel the shape of the voice. Do this several times, then go back and</p><p>work on the previous audio file where the words are at regular pace. Keep the</p><p>right intonation, just do it a bit faster. When you go back to regular pace, try not</p><p>to think ‘now I’m talking normally’ — you want to break your habits of how you</p><p>talk. Think of it as a melodic exercise that you’re going to do faster.</p><p>Audio 9.2 — Content Words</p><p>books, school, dinner, run, sat, eat, blue, old, happy, quickly,</p><p>always, often</p><p>engl.io/ayc</p><p>Audio 9.3 — Content Words, Slow Motion</p><p>books, school, dinner, run, sat, eat, blue, old, happy, quickly,</p><p>always, often</p><p>engl.io/aye</p><p>http://engl.io/ay8</p><p>http://engl.io/aya</p><p>http://engl.io/ayc</p><p>http://engl.io/aye</p><p>173</p><p>Sentences can have more than one stressed word. For example:</p><p>They’re already here. This sentence has two content words, the adverb already</p><p>and the noun here. The syllables ‘-read-’ and ‘here’ are stressed, so they are</p><p>longer, clearer, and have the shape of a stressed syllable.</p><p>Sometimes one stressed word in a sentence will be clearer than others. A native</p><p>speaker might say “I need to leave at three,” and make three the loudest and</p><p>most clear word. Or, a native speaker might say “I need to leave at three,” and</p><p>stress need the most. That might signal a clarification:</p><p>>> Do you want to leave at three? [Is that convenient?]</p><p>>> I need to leave at three. [I don’t have any other options, if I leave after that I’ll</p><p>be late for an important meeting.]</p><p>There is no one right way to stress a sentence. It depends on what piece of</p><p>information is most important to the speaker.</p><p>Video 9.4 — Which word is the most stressed?</p><p>Can you identify which word is the most stressed? Which</p><p>one do you think is the clearest, the longest? engl.io/ayh</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 9.4 — Which Word is the Most Stressed?</p><p>You’ll hear ten sentences. Which word do you think is the most stressed of all</p><p>the stressed words? Answers in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>Audio 9.4 — Which Word is the Most Stressed?</p><p>It’s time to go.</p><p>How was it?</p><p>We’re gonna be late.</p><p>What are you doing this weekend?</p><p>That’s too bad.</p><p>It’s too early to tell.</p><p>I need the report by end-of-day tomorrow.</p><p>Excuse me.</p><p>We heard you bought a new house.</p><p>Class starts at 3:30.</p><p>engl.io/ayk</p><p>http://engl.io/ayh</p><p>http://engl.io/ayk</p><p>174</p><p>Though there is no one right way to stress a sentence, we can make a</p><p>generalization about intonation and statements. The melody of a sentence</p><p>will fall from the beginning to the end. Though stressed words will ‘pop out’</p><p>from the melodic line of a sentence ↷, stressed words at the beginning of a</p><p>sentence will generally be more stressed, clearer, and more energized than</p><p>stressed words at the end of a sentence. By the end of a sentence, even for a</p><p>stressed word, the volume can be quiet and some of the energy of the voice</p><p>gone, just like in an unstressed syllable.</p><p>Video 9.5 — Word Stress and Sentence Position</p><p>See how stressed words at the end of a sentence are</p><p>different from stressed words at the beginning of a sentence</p><p>using speech analysis software. When two words are</p><p>compared, the difference in volume and energy is great.</p><p>engl.io/aym</p><p>Lots of words can be either content words or function words, depending on how</p><p>they work in the sentence. For example, the word ‘by’ can be a preposition, like</p><p>in the phrase “Stand by the edge.” But, it can also be and adverb: “She lives</p><p>close by.” In the first sentence, the word ‘by’ will be very fast. It’s unstressed:</p><p>↷ · · ↷</p><p>Stand by the edge.</p><p>But in the second sentence, it will be longer and have shape in the voice:</p><p>· ↷ ↷ ↷</p><p>She lives close by.</p><p>How can you know if you should be stressing ‘by’ or not, or other words like it?</p><p>Don’t worry about that too much — it’s not necessary to be a grammar guru. The</p><p>more English you listen to and imitate, the better you’ll be at doing it naturally. I</p><p>would say most of my students actually know intuitively which syllables should be</p><p>the most stressed. The problem is that they stress them the wrong way: flat and</p><p>harsh, instead of with a softer curve up and down in the voice. The other main</p><p>problem is making the unstressed syllables too long and clear. Again, this isn’t a</p><p>problem with knowing which syllables are unstressed, but with not making them</p><p>fast enough to contrast with the stressed syllables.</p><p>http://engl.io/aym</p><p>175</p><p>Intonation of Sentences: Up or Down?</p><p>Most statements follow this trend of decreased pitch, volume, and energy. You</p><p>just learned this by seeing how words at the end of a sentence are lower in pitch</p><p>and less clear than words at the beginning of a sentence.</p><p>But some sentences don’t go down in pitch. Sentences or parts of sentences</p><p>that lead into another thought often go up in pitch, to signal that there’s more to</p><p>say.</p><p>For example:</p><p>We found out the flight was cancelled, so everyone got upset.</p><p>In the first thought group, the part before the comma, I may make</p><p>the pitch of my</p><p>voice go up to lead into the second thought: ⤴,⤵ ︎</p><p>Listen: Audio 9.5 — One Thought Leading to Another.</p><p>You’ll hear a phrase where the first half goes up in pitch, leading to the next.</p><p>Then you’ll hear just that first part of the phrase three times. To Americans, it</p><p>sounds like there is more to say, it sounds like the speaker is not finished, that</p><p>the thought is unresolved. Then you’ll hear the second half of the sentence three</p><p>times. This half goes down in pitch. It sounds complete.</p><p>Audio 9.5 — One Thought Leading to Another</p><p>We found out the flight was cancelled, so everyone got</p><p>upset. engl.io/ayp</p><p>Also, lists will have words or phrases that go up in pitch. Each item on the list</p><p>goes up in pitch to signal there’s more to come; the list isn’t done. The last item</p><p>goes down in pitch to show that the thought is complete.</p><p>For example:</p><p>We went for a run, ⤴</p><p>we ate breakfast, ⤴</p><p>and we started to work. ︎︎⤵ ︎</p><p>Video 9.6 — Intonation and Lists</p><p>Each item of the list goes up in pitch except the last one,</p><p>which goes down.</p><p>engl.io/ays</p><p>http://engl.io/ayp</p><p>http://engl.io/ays</p><p>176</p><p>Along with statements, questions that can’t be answered with ‘yes’ or ‘no’ follow</p><p>this trend of decreasing pitch, volume, and energy.</p><p>For example:</p><p>How are you? ⤵</p><p>What are you doing? ⤵ ︎</p><p>What’s your name? ⤵ ︎</p><p>What time? ⤵ ︎</p><p>Questions that can be answered with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’, however, go up in pitch at</p><p>the end.</p><p>Are you okay? ⤴</p><p>Are you sure? ⤴</p><p>Were you there? ⤴</p><p>Are you hungry? ⤴</p><p>Video 9.7 — Intonation and Questions</p><p>Learn several examples of pitch going up at the end of</p><p>yes/no questions. engl.io/ayu</p><p>Video 9.8 — What time?</p><p>This is not a yes/no question, so the pitch goes down at the</p><p>end. engl.io/axr</p><p>Video 9.9 — Are you okay?</p><p>This is a yes/no question, so the pitch goes up at the end.</p><p>engl.io/ayz</p><p>Video 9.10 — Are you sure?</p><p>This is a yes/no question, so the pitch goes up at the end.</p><p>engl.io/az2</p><p>Tag questions are little questions we add to the end of statements. They are</p><p>always yes/no questions, so they go up in pitch:</p><p>http://engl.io/ayu</p><p>http://engl.io/axr</p><p>http://engl.io/ayz</p><p>http://engl.io/az2</p><p>177</p><p>It’s nice out ⤵ ︎︎, isn’t it? ⤴</p><p>You’re done ⤵ ︎, right? ⤴</p><p>The intonation of a sentence does affect the meaning. If the intonation goes up,</p><p>it means you’re expecting an answer or response. For example, “They’re leaving</p><p>now?” ⤴ When the pitch goes up at the end, it shows that you don’t know if</p><p>they’re leaving now, and you’re asking someone. If you said it with the pitch</p><p>going down, it shows that you do know and you’re telling someone: “They’re</p><p>leaving now.” ⤵ ︎</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 9.6 — Up or Down?</p><p>Which phrases go up in pitch (question), and which down (statement)? The final</p><p>punctuation is left out — just go by what you hear. Answers in the Answers</p><p>Appendix.</p><p>Audio 9.6 — Up or Down?</p><p>You</p><p>Yes</p><p>What time</p><p>Are you hungry</p><p>No</p><p>This one</p><p>They’re late</p><p>No</p><p>This one</p><p>They’re late</p><p>engl.io/az4</p><p>This chapter has focused on the words that we stress in a sentence, the content</p><p>words. The next chapter does the opposite — words that are not only</p><p>unstressed, but reduced.</p><p>Video 9.11 — Helpful</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/az7</p><p>Video 9.12 — Sorry</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/awp</p><p>http://engl.io/az4</p><p>http://engl.io/az7</p><p>http://engl.io/awp</p><p>178</p><p>Video 9.13 — Favorite</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/azb</p><p>Video 9.14 — Beautiful</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/aw5</p><p>Video 9.15 — Really</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/azg</p><p>Video 9.16 — Definitely</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/azj</p><p>Video 9.17 — Very</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/azn</p><p>Video 9.18 — Probably</p><p>Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.</p><p>engl.io/awg</p><p>http://engl.io/azb</p><p>http://engl.io/aw5</p><p>http://engl.io/azg</p><p>http://engl.io/azj</p><p>http://engl.io/azn</p><p>http://engl.io/awg</p><p>179</p><p>Chapter 10</p><p>Unstressed Words and Words that Reduce</p><p>In the previous chapter, you learned about the general intonation of phrases, and</p><p>which words should be stressed. Now it’s time to study words that are</p><p>unstressed: function words. Good American English includes function words</p><p>that are said extremely quickly. Often, for the most advanced students,</p><p>shortening the short syllables is one of the last things we have to work on. Some</p><p>people can’t believe how short they can or should make a word — but please</p><p>believe it! These words should be short, short, short. They don’t need to be</p><p>clear. As you drill them, keep as much relaxation in your face and neck as</p><p>possible. The more relaxed you are, the more easily you can make these words</p><p>quickly.</p><p>Function words are articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, and</p><p>helping verbs. These will generally be unstressed, so they will be faster, lower in</p><p>volume, and flatter in pitch than stressed syllables. They will be less clear than</p><p>the stressed syllables in a sentence.</p><p>Listen: Audio 10.1 — Stressed vs. Unstressed.</p><p>You’ll hear the words ‘if’ and ‘on’ stressed and unstressed. These words don’t</p><p>reduce—none of the sounds change or are dropped—but they still sound quite</p><p>different when stressed than unstressed. The unstressed version is quieter,</p><p>shorter, and has less energy and shape in the voice. It’s little more mumbled.</p><p>You’ll hear each pair, stressed then unstressed, twice.</p><p>180</p><p>Audio 10.1 — Stressed vs. Unstressed</p><p>if [ɪf] stressed, [ɪf] unstressed</p><p>on [ɑn] stressed, [ɑn] unstressed engl.io/a12</p><p>Notice the IPA is the same for the stressed and unstressed versions. That is</p><p>because no sounds change—but they still sound so different. The IPA doesn’t</p><p>capture qualities like the shape or energy of the voice, or extremely quick</p><p>syllables. Don’t worry, as you work through this chapter, you’ll start to get a feel</p><p>for how these unstressed and reduced words should sound.</p><p>There are several kinds of function words. The words below are just examples</p><p>for each category, not full lists.</p><p>pronouns — I, we, she, me, us, myself, herself, my, your, our, mine, theirs</p><p>prepositions — on, in, at, below, to, through, from, till, since, by</p><p>conjunctions — and, but, or, for, while</p><p>auxiliary verbs — am, are, can, will, has, have, did, do, could, should, would,</p><p>might</p><p>particles — no, not, as</p><p>determiners — the, a, an, some, this, that, these, those</p><p>Remember, some words can be either a function word or a content word,</p><p>depending on how it works in the sentence. For example, the word ‘some’ can</p><p>be a determiner, a function word, like in the phrase “I need some money.” It can</p><p>also be an adjective, or a content word, like in the phrase “Some people think</p><p>so.” In the first sentence, the word ‘some’ will be very fast:</p><p>· ↷ · ↷ ·</p><p>I need some money.</p><p>But in the second sentence, it will be longer and have shape in the voice:</p><p>↷ ↷ · ↷ ·</p><p>Some people think so.</p><p>How can you know if you should be stressing ‘some’ or not, or other words like</p><p>it? Don’t worry about that too much—it’s not necessary to be a grammar guru.</p><p>The more English you listen to and imitate, the better you’ll be at doing it</p><p>naturally.</p><p>http://engl.io/a12</p><p>181</p><p>Some words go further than being unstressed: they’re reduced. When</p><p>something reduces, that means a sound will change or be dropped.</p><p>Generally, only function words will reduce. Content words are too important. So,</p><p>a reduced syllable is a kind of unstressed syllable.</p><p>Reductions are, hands down, one of my favorite things to teach about American</p><p>English pronunciation.</p><p>What does ‘hands down’ mean? It means unquestionably, easily,</p><p>obviously. This idiom comes from horse racing. If a jockey is so sure</p><p>that he’ll win a race, if he’s so far ahead, he can drop his hands and</p><p>loosen the reigns on the horse. He can relax because he’s so far</p><p>ahead, and he will unquestionable win</p><p>the race.</p><p>This is because it can make such a big difference in a student sounding</p><p>American. Comfortably reducing words, and linking them into the sentence, will</p><p>transform the character of your speech.</p><p>Example:</p><p>for [fɔɹ] — how the word is pronounced by itself; fully pronounced</p><p>for [fəәɹ] — how the word is pronounced in a sentence, reduced</p><p>them [ðɛm] — how the word is pronounced by itself; fully pronounced</p><p>them [əәm] — how the word is pronounced in a sentence, reduced</p><p>‘For’ reduces because a sound changes: the vowel becomes the schwa [əә].</p><p>Changing a full vowel to the schwa is a common reduction for many words.</p><p>‘Them’ reduces because a sound changes and a sound is dropped: the vowel</p><p>changes to the schwa [əә], and the TH sound [ð] is dropped.</p><p>Listen: Audio 10.2 — Stressed vs. Reduced.</p><p>You’ll hear the words ‘for’ and ‘them’, stressed and reduced. The reduced</p><p>version is quieter, shorter, and has less energy and shape to the voice. It’s a</p><p>little more mumbled. You’ll hear each pair, stressed then reduced, twice.</p><p>Audio 10.2 — Stressed vs. Reduced</p><p>for [fɔɹ], [fəәɹ]</p><p>them [ðɛm], [əәm] engl.io/a14</p><p>http://engl.io/a14</p><p>182</p><p>Having listened to both audio samples above, I think you know: reduced or</p><p>unstressed words sound quite different from the same word stressed. The</p><p>challenge will be for you feel comfortable making these words unstressed or</p><p>reduced. You might feel that they’re not clear enough, or ‘good English’. Some</p><p>students think, “If I pronounce everything fully and clearly, that will be better.” I</p><p>cannot say it too many times: that is not true. Perfect American English is</p><p>about the contrast between clear stressed syllables, and quicker, less important,</p><p>less clear unstressed syllables. If you fully pronounce every word, you can’t</p><p>sound American. And, you might be harder to understand.</p><p>If you don’t make the right syllables unstressed or reduced, important contrast</p><p>with stressed syllables will be missing. I hope I’ve convinced you how important</p><p>this is! The good news is, speech becomes easier when you reduce common</p><p>function words because you get to simplify them.</p><p>ARE, OR, FOR, and YOUR</p><p>ARE fully pronounced: [ɑɹ]; reduced [əәɹ]</p><p>Let’s start with are. Remember, the R will overtake the schwa, it’s a syllabic</p><p>consonant. This means you don’t need to think of making a separate schwa</p><p>sound, just a very quick R sound. So, are is three letters, but you only need to</p><p>make one sound!</p><p>Don’t reduce are if it’s the last word of the sentence. For example:</p><p>I don’t know where they are.</p><p>Video 10.1 — ARE Reduction</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice reducing this</p><p>word. engl.io/a16</p><p>Video 10.2 — Are you Sure?</p><p>We studied this in the last chapter when studying intonation.</p><p>Now pay attention to the reduction of are. engl.io/az2</p><p>Video 10.3 — Are you Okay?</p><p>We studied this in the last chapter when studying intonation.</p><p>Now pay attention to the reduction of are. Lots of questions</p><p>in conversation start with this word!</p><p>engl.io/ayz</p><p>http://engl.io/a16</p><p>http://engl.io/az2</p><p>http://engl.io/ayz</p><p>183</p><p>OR fully pronounced: [ɔɹ]; reduced: [əәɹ]</p><p>Fully pronounced, or does not sound like are. But reduced, they sound exactly</p><p>the same, the schwa-R sound made very quickly. It’s ok that these two words</p><p>sound the same. Because of the context the sentence provides, it will be clear</p><p>which word you’re saying.</p><p>Video 10.4 — OR Reduction</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice reducing this</p><p>word. engl.io/a1c</p><p>FOR fully pronounced: [fɔɹ]; reduced: [fəәɹ]</p><p>For, fully pronounced, sounds just like the number four [fɔɹ]. But, in a sentence,</p><p>we reduce for by changing the vowel to the schwa. Now the word is extremely</p><p>fast. The number four won’t reduce in a sentence—the vowel doesn’t change.</p><p>This is because four is a noun, and nouns are content words. Content words</p><p>don’t reduce. Start with an F, and pull the tongue quickly back for the R.</p><p>Don’t reduce for if it’s the last word of the sentence. For example:</p><p>That’s what it’s for.</p><p>Video 10.5 — FOR Reduction</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice reducing this</p><p>word. engl.io/a1f</p><p>Video 10.6 — For Sure</p><p>Study the reduction in this in-depth phrase study. You can</p><p>also study linking consonant to consonant. engl.io/a1g</p><p>YOUR fully pronounced: [jɔɹ] (or [jʊəәɹ] or [joʊɹ], slight variations); reduced: [jəәɹ]</p><p>Both fully pronounced and in reduction, this word sounds just like the contraction</p><p>you’re. You don’t need to think of a vowel sound here, just the Y sound going</p><p>straight into the R sound. Like all reduced words, this word should be said very</p><p>quickly!</p><p>http://engl.io/a1c</p><p>http://engl.io/a1f</p><p>http://engl.io/a1g</p><p>184</p><p>Video 10.7 — YOUR Reduction</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice reducing this</p><p>word. engl.io/a1k</p><p>Just like in Chapter 6, where we practiced unstressed syllables by themselves,</p><p>practice these function words by themselves. Challenge yourself: how quickly</p><p>can you make them? Then put them back into the sentences you’re working on.</p><p>Remember to always link your function words to the words around them. They</p><p>shouldn’t feel separate.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.3 — ARE, OR, FOR, YOUR.</p><p>You’ll hear each word fully pronounced, then a sample sentence fragment where</p><p>it is reduced. Then you’ll hear the reduced word three times. How short can you</p><p>make the word? Don’t forget, you don’t have to fully energize the voice;</p><p>experiment with using less air. Then you’ll hear the sentence fragment again.</p><p>Try to make the word just as short in the sentence as it was on its own.</p><p>Audio 10.3 — ARE, OR, FOR, YOUR</p><p>are, are you there? [əәɹ jəә ðɛəәɹ]</p><p>or, small or large? [smɔl əәɹ lɑɹʤ]</p><p>for, for school [fəәɹ skul]</p><p>your, your paper [jəәɹ ˈpeɪ pəәɹ]</p><p>engl.io/a1m</p><p>Sometimes you do want to fully pronounce a word that normally reduces.</p><p>You might stress for clarity.</p><p>Example:</p><p>>> You broke Sara’s phone?</p><p>>> No, YOUR phone. Sorry!</p><p>AT and THAT</p><p>These two words have the AA as in BAT [æ] vowel when fully pronounced, but</p><p>that often reduces to the schwa sound [əә] instead. The pronunciation of the final</p><p>T depends on the next word. If it links into a vowel or diphthong, it’s a Flap T like</p><p>in at a or that a. If it links into a word that begins with a consonant, or it doesn’t</p><p>http://engl.io/a1k</p><p>http://engl.io/a1m</p><p>185</p><p>link into anything (at the end of a thought group), it will be a Stop T. For example</p><p>at my or that my. As always, these words should be very fast!</p><p>AT fully pronounced: [æt]; reduced: [əәt]</p><p>THAT fully pronounced: [ðæt]; reduced: [ðəәt]</p><p>At is a preposition, which is a function word. But that can be used many different</p><p>ways. It can be a pronoun, adjective, adverb, or a conjunction. In some cases</p><p>we’ll reduce it, and in others, not.</p><p>Don’t reduce that if:</p><p>• You’re using that with after or before, to show a sequence in time. Examples:</p><p>After that, we went to the movie. Before that, I had never even heard of him.</p><p>• You’re comparing with this. Examples: This one works better than that one.</p><p>This is hers and that’s mine.</p><p>• You’re using it as an adverb. Here that is indicating an amount, a degree of</p><p>something, and will come before an adjective or adverb: that much, that big,</p><p>that small, that important, that hard.</p><p>• It’s at the end of a sentence.</p><p>For other uses of that, you can reduce it.</p><p>Examples where you can reduce that:</p><p>I thought that you knew.</p><p>This is the one that I got.</p><p>That’s hard.</p><p>Turn it up so that we can all hear.</p><p>Video 10.8 — AT Reduction</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice reducing this</p><p>word. engl.io/a1p</p><p>Video 10.9 — THAT Reduction</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice reducing this</p><p>word. engl.io/a1s</p><p>http://engl.io/a1p</p><p>http://engl.io/a1s</p><p>186</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.4 — AT and THAT.</p><p>First you’ll hear a sample sentence, but don’t repeat yet. Next you’ll hear just the</p><p>word, twice. It’s very fast when it’s reduced! Make it just as fast as you hear</p><p>it.</p><p>Then you’ll hear a sentence fragment linking the word into other words, twice.</p><p>Can you understand what you’re hearing? Say it like you hear it, not like you</p><p>think the words should be pronounced. These function words are incredibly fast.</p><p>Then you’ll hear the whole sentence. Can you put it all together?</p><p>Audio 10.4 — AT and THAT</p><p>that [ðəәt]</p><p>that it (Flap T to link!) [ðəә‿dɪt]</p><p>thought that it [θɔt| ðəә‿dɪt]</p><p>We thought that it would work. [wi θɔt| ðəә‿dɪt| wʊd wɜɹk]</p><p>at [əәt]</p><p>at the (Stop T!) [əәt| ðəә]</p><p>we’re at the [wɪəә‿ɹəәt| ðəә]</p><p>We’re at the movies. [wɪəә‿ɹəәt| ðəә ˈmu viz]</p><p>that [ðəәt]</p><p>that I (Flap T!) [ðəә‿daɪ]</p><p>bad that I [bæd| ðəә‿daɪ]</p><p>The movie was so bad that I left. [ðəә ˈmu vi wəәz soʊ bæd|</p><p>ðəә‿daɪ lεft]</p><p>engl.io/a1v</p><p>Dropping the H, THEM, and OF</p><p>Some function words reduce by dropping the first sound. This applies to function</p><p>words that begin with H that are pronouns (him, her, his, he), function words that</p><p>begin with H that are helping verbs (have, has, had), and the word them.</p><p>The words them and him will sound the same in reduction, both reducing to [əәm]:</p><p>I made him a card. [aɪˈmeɪd‿əәm əәˈkɑɹd]</p><p>I made them a card. [aɪˈmeɪd‿əәm əәˈkɑɹd]</p><p>The words have and of also sound the same when reduced. There are two</p><p>reductions for them, one with and one without the V sound. Either reduction is</p><p>ok, you’ll hear native speakers do both. Because they sound the same in</p><p>speech, sometimes native speakers write them incorrectly, for example, “I should</p><p>of.” With should, would, and could, the following word is always have, not of.</p><p>http://engl.io/a1v</p><p>187</p><p>Notice that many of the vowels reduce to the schwa [əә] sound:</p><p>Word Full Pronunciation Reduction</p><p>of</p><p>have</p><p>had</p><p>has</p><p>he</p><p>his</p><p>her</p><p>him</p><p>them</p><p>[ʌv]</p><p>[hæv]</p><p>[hæd]</p><p>[hæz]</p><p>[hi]</p><p>[hɪz]</p><p>[hɜɹ]</p><p>[hɪm]</p><p>[ðɛm]</p><p>[əәv] or [əә]</p><p>[əәv] or [əә]</p><p>[əәd]</p><p>[əәz]</p><p>[i]</p><p>[ɪz]</p><p>[əәɹ]</p><p>[əәm]</p><p>[əәm]</p><p>When you drop a beginning sound, make sure to link that word to the word</p><p>before. It should just sound like an extra syllable at the end of that word. “Give</p><p>her” should sound just like “giver” [ˈgɪv əәɹ].</p><p>With all of the dropped H reductions, and the them reduction, we’ve changed the</p><p>word so it starts with a vowel instead of a consonant. Keep that in mind when</p><p>linking to the word before—if it ends with a T, it will make a Flap T:</p><p>got her [ˈgɑ‿dəәɹ]</p><p>met them [ˈmɛ‿dəәm]</p><p>Video 10.10 — Dropping the H Reduction</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice this kind of</p><p>reduction. engl.io/a1x</p><p>Video 10.11 — I have a Cold</p><p>Study the dropped H in this phrase study video. Also, study</p><p>the difference between ‘cold’ and ‘code’ — the difference is</p><p>the Dark L!</p><p>engl.io/a1z</p><p>Video 10.12 — I have to Go</p><p>Study the dropped H in this phrase study video.</p><p>engl.io/a21</p><p>http://engl.io/a1x</p><p>http://engl.io/a1z</p><p>http://engl.io/a21</p><p>188</p><p>Video 10.13 — THEM Reduction</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice reducing this</p><p>word. engl.io/a23</p><p>Video 10.14 — OF Reduction</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice reducing this</p><p>word. engl.io/a27</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.5 — Dropping the H.</p><p>First you’ll hear the word separated from the word before, fully pronounced.</p><p>Then you’ll hear it reduced, with the H dropped, linked to the word before four</p><p>times. The H-word should sound like an unstressed syllable. The sound flows</p><p>forward, no break between words.</p><p>Audio 10.5 — Dropping the H</p><p>him: tell him [tεl‿əәm]</p><p>have: would have [wʊd‿əәv]</p><p>his: on his [ɔn‿ɪz]</p><p>her: by her [baɪ‿əәɹ] (sounds just like ‘buyer’!)</p><p>engl.io/a2b</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.6 — THEM.</p><p>First you’ll hear a sentence fragment. Then it will be broken down, each part</p><p>twice: just the word them reduced, then the link (the consonant before with the</p><p>reduced them). Then you’ll hear the whole phrase again. Keep it linked. Them</p><p>should just feel like an unstressed syllable at the end of the word before.</p><p>Audio 10.6 — THEM</p><p>gave them [geɪv‿əәm]</p><p>need them [nid‿əәm] engl.io/a2e</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.7 — OF.</p><p>You’ll hear both reductions here. First you’ll hear the phrase with the V sound at</p><p>the end. You’ll hear just the reduced of twice, then the phrase again twice. Next</p><p>you’ll hear the phrase without the V sound. You’ll hear the reduced of twice, here</p><p>http://engl.io/a23</p><p>http://engl.io/a27</p><p>http://engl.io/a2b</p><p>http://engl.io/a2e</p><p>189</p><p>it’s just the schwa sound! Then the phrase two more times. Remember, with the</p><p>of reduction, it’s ok to leave the V on, or not. Both will sound nice if you link them</p><p>to the words before and make them as fast as you can.</p><p>Audio 10.7 — OF</p><p>sort of [sɔɹd‿əәv]</p><p>sort of [sɔɹd‿əә]</p><p>kind of [kaɪnd‿əәv]</p><p>kind of [kaɪnd‿əә]</p><p>engl.io/a2g</p><p>CAN</p><p>CAN fully pronounced: [kæn]; reduced [kəәn]</p><p>The word can can be a function word or a content word; most of the time it’s a</p><p>function word. When it’s a function word, we reduce it. Can is a function word</p><p>when it’s a helping verb, or auxiliary verb. That means it’s not the main verb in</p><p>the sentence:</p><p>“I can help you.”</p><p>The main verb here is help, so can is the helping verb. That means it will reduce.</p><p>>> Who can help?</p><p>>> I can.</p><p>Here, in “I can,” it’s the main verb, so it doesn’t reduce.</p><p>“We can tomatoes every summer.”</p><p>Here, it’s the main verb, so it doesn’t reduce. In this case, it means to put</p><p>something in a can, not able to do something.</p><p>Usually can is a helping verb. When we reduce can, we change the vowel from</p><p>the AA as in BAT [æ] vowel to the schwa [əә]. The N consonant [n] is a syllabic</p><p>consonant, which means it takes over the schwa sound. You don’t need to try to</p><p>make a separate schwa sound, just go straight from [k] to [n].</p><p>Video 10.15 — CAN Reduction</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice reducing this</p><p>word. engl.io/a2i</p><p>http://engl.io/a2g</p><p>http://engl.io/a2i</p><p>190</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.8 — CAN.</p><p>You’ll hear can fully pronounced, then the reduction. Then you’ll the word before</p><p>with can. Again, it just sounds like an unstressed syllable at the end of the word</p><p>before: very quick, not fully or clearly pronounced. We just need a quick [k]</p><p>sound and [n] sound to know it’s can. Then you’ll hear the whole sentence. The</p><p>main verbs will be much more clearly pronounced.</p><p>Audio 10.8 — CAN</p><p>I can be there. [aɪ kəәn bi ðεəәɹ]</p><p>We can try. [wi kəәn tɹaɪ] (‘We can’ sounds like ‘weaken’!) engl.io/a2k</p><p>TO, YOU, DO, and DOES</p><p>TO fully pronounced: [tu]; reduced [təә] or [dəә]</p><p>To will almost always be reduced by changing the vowel to the schwa [əә]. The T</p><p>can be a True T or a Flap T. If you don’t want to bother with thinking about the T,</p><p>just always make a True T. It will still be a great reduction with the schwa [əә]. If</p><p>you want to smooth out your speech even more, use the Flap T when the sound</p><p>before is voiced, like in “I’m running to the store” or “I’m taking Anna to the party.”</p><p>Video 10.16 — TO Reduction</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice reducing ‘to’.</p><p>engl.io/a2n</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.9 — TO.</p><p>You’ll hear a longer phrase with a to reduction. Don’t try to imitate yet, first let’s</p><p>break it up. You’ll hear just the word to with the word before three times. Listen</p><p>to see if the T is a True T or a Flap T. The words should flow together with no</p><p>break. To should sound unstressed, less important. Then try the whole phrase.</p><p>Audio 10.9 — TO</p><p>going to [ˈgoʊ ɪŋ təә] (this can reduce further to ‘gonna’ - you’ll</p><p>learn more about that soon), I’m going to be late. [aɪm ˈgoʊ</p><p>ɪŋ təә bi leɪt|]</p><p>about to [əәˈbaʊt| təә], I’m about to leave. [aɪm əәˈbaʊt| təә liv]</p><p>it to [ɪt| təә], Give it to my assistant. [gɪ‿vɪt| təә maɪ‿jəәˈsɪs təәnt|]</p><p>engl.io/a2p</p><p>http://engl.io/a2k</p><p>http://engl.io/a2n</p><p>http://engl.io/a2p</p><p>191</p><p>YOU fully pronounced: [ju]; reduced [jəә]</p><p>This reduction is so common that you’ve probably seen it written: ya. See ya!</p><p>You gets reduced in common phrases like “What do you___”: “What do you</p><p>want to do?” “What do you think?” Simply change the OO as in BOO [u] vowel</p><p>to the schwa [əә].</p><p>Video 10.17 — See You</p><p>Study the you reduction in this in-depth phrase study. This</p><p>is a very common phrase we use when saying good-bye to a</p><p>friend.</p><p>engl.io/a2s</p><p>DO fully pronounced: [du]; reduced [dəә]</p><p>DOES fully pronounced: [dʌz]; reduced [dəәz]</p><p>The words do and does can be reduced in a question. For example, “Do you</p><p>want to go?”, “Does she know?”</p><p>Exception: ‘Do’ is not reduced in questions if it is the main verb. For example,</p><p>“What does she do?” ‘Do’ is the main verb, and it should be fully pronounced.</p><p>In a statement, ‘do’ or ‘does’ can be the main verb or added for emphasis. This</p><p>means we want to stress it, not reduce it:</p><p>I do want to know.</p><p>She does odd jobs for us.</p><p>Video 10.18 — DO and DOES Reduction</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice reducing these</p><p>words. engl.io/a2v</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.10 — DO and DOES.</p><p>You’ll hear a longer phrase with do or does. Don’t try to imitate yet, first let’s</p><p>break it up. You’ll hear just the reduced word on its own, twice. Then you’ll hear</p><p>it with the word after, twice—make sure the two words link and flow together.</p><p>Imitate it just as you hear it. Then try the whole phrase.</p><p>http://engl.io/a2s</p><p>http://engl.io/a2v</p><p>192</p><p>Audio 10.10 — DO and DOES</p><p>do: do you [dəә jəә], Do you want to go? [dəә jəә ˈwʌn əә goʊ]</p><p>does: does she [dəәz ʃi], Does she know? [dəәz ʃi noʊ] engl.io/a2w</p><p>A, AN, and AND</p><p>A fully pronounced: [eɪ]; reduced [əә]</p><p>A is another word that will reduce to just the schwa, just like have and of. It’s an</p><p>article; always link it to the next word for smoother speech. So, ‘a cross’ should</p><p>sound just like ‘across’ [əәˈkɹɔs].</p><p>AN fully pronounced: [æn]; reduced [əәn]</p><p>AND fully pronounced: [ænd]; reduced [əәn]</p><p>The D sound is dropped in the and reduction, so and and an sound the same.</p><p>Remember that N is a syllabic consonant, so it absorbs the schwa—just think of</p><p>making an N sound. Writing can reflect this reduction. You’ve probably seen</p><p>something like “Cookies ’n Cream”. It’s not appropriate in professional writing,</p><p>but it’s always appropriate in speech.</p><p>Video 10.19 — AND Reduction</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice reducing this</p><p>word. engl.io/a32</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.11 — AND.</p><p>You’ll hear a sentence with the word and, but don’t try to repeat it yet. First let’s</p><p>break it down. You’ll hear just the word and three times. Then you’ll hear and</p><p>with the word before three times. It’s linked; and should just feel like an</p><p>unstressed syllable at the end of the word before. Then you’ll hear and with the</p><p>word before it and after it, three times. Hear how it links those two words together</p><p>with an N sound. This is an important idea: you can use these function words to</p><p>link other words together, making the sentence smoother. Then you can try the</p><p>whole sentence.</p><p>http://engl.io/a2w</p><p>http://engl.io/a32</p><p>193</p><p>Audio 10.11 — AND</p><p>And, cold and, cold and windy [koʊld‿əәn ˈwɪn di], It’s cold</p><p>and windy.</p><p>and, cats and, cats and dogs [kæts‿əәn dɔgz], It’s raining</p><p>cats and dogs.</p><p>and, Peter and, Peter and Kelly [ˈpi dəәɹ‿əәn ˈkεl i], Peter and</p><p>Kelly are moving in.</p><p>engl.io/a34</p><p>THE</p><p>THE fully pronounced: ði</p><p>reduced: ði or ðəә</p><p>The word the has two possible pronunciations. If the next word begins with a</p><p>vowel or diphthong, use this pronunciation: [ði]. For example, “the olives”, “the</p><p>other”. If the next word begins with a consonant, then the pronunciation is [ðəә]:</p><p>“the last”, “the best”.</p><p>Video 10.20 — How to Pronounce THE</p><p>Hear several example sentences that go over the two</p><p>different pronunciations for this word. engl.io/a37</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.12 — THE.</p><p>For both pronunciations, you’ll first hear the word the, then two phrases with the.</p><p>You’ll hear each part three times. Make the article as short as you can.</p><p>Audio 10.12 — THE</p><p>the [ði], the other [ði‿ˈjʌʒ əәɹ], the earth [ði‿jɜɹθ]</p><p>the [ðəә], the best [ðəә‿bεst], the worst [ðəә‿wɜɹst] engl.io/a38</p><p>AS, WAS, and BECAUSE</p><p>AS fully pronounced: [æz]; reduced [əәz]</p><p>WAS fully pronounced: [wʌz]; reduced [wəәz]</p><p>BECAUSE fully pronounced: [bɪˈkɔz]; reduced [bɪˈkəәz] or [kəәz]</p><p>All of these words reduce to end in a very quick [əәz]. Some students from Asia</p><p>have a habit of pulling the tongue back for was, making it sound like there’s an R</p><p>mixed in. The tongue tip should be forward for all of these words.</p><p>http://engl.io/a34</p><p>http://engl.io/a37</p><p>http://engl.io/a38</p><p>194</p><p>The word because can reduce two ways. Either one is ok to use; they are</p><p>interchangeable.</p><p>Video 10.21 — BECAUSE Reduction</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice reducing this</p><p>word. engl.io/a3c</p><p>Video 10.22 — The AS and WAS Reductions</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice reducing this</p><p>word. engl.io/a3e</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.13 — AS, WAS, BECAUSE.</p><p>You’ll hear a phrase, but don’t practice it yet. First break it down. You’ll hear the</p><p>reduced word three times. Make it as short as you hear it. Then you’ll hear it</p><p>linked to the next word. Again, make it quick, a smooth transition to the next</p><p>word. Then try the whole phrase.</p><p>Audio 10.13 — AS, WAS, BECAUSE</p><p>as, as I [əәz‿aɪ], as I thought.</p><p>as, as good [əәz gʊd], You’re as good as her.</p><p>was, was he [wəәz‿i], Was he there?</p><p>was, was good [wəәz gʊd], It was good.</p><p>because, because I’m [bɪˈkəәz‿aɪm], because I’m tired</p><p>because, because they [bɪˈkəәz ðeɪ], because they live too</p><p>far out of town.</p><p>engl.io/a3g</p><p>SHOULD, WOULD, and COULD</p><p>SHOULD fully pronounced: [ʃʊd]; reduced [ʃəәd] or [ʃəә]</p><p>COULD fully pronounced: [kʊd]; reduced [kəәd] or [kəә]</p><p>WOULD fully pronounced: [wʊd]; reduced [wəәd] or [wəә]</p><p>These three words can all be reduced by changing the vowel to the schwa and</p><p>saying the word quickly. You’ll notice some Americans go even further, reducing</p><p>more by dropping the D sound. Dropping the D only works when the next sound</p><p>is a consonant, for example: “could we”, “should see”, “would John”. If the next</p><p>http://engl.io/a3c</p><p>http://engl.io/a3e</p><p>http://engl.io/a3g</p><p>195</p><p>sound is a vowel or diphthong, make a quick flap of the tongue for the D and</p><p>connect the words.</p><p>Video 10.23 — Should, Would, and Could</p><p>Hear several example sentences to practice reducing these</p><p>words. engl.io/a3j</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.14 — SHOULD, WOULD, and COULD.</p><p>You’ll hear several examples, some where you’ll want to keep the D, because the</p><p>next word begins with a vowel or diphthong, and some where you can drop the</p><p>D. You’ll hear sentence fragments, then the whole sentence, each twice.</p><p>Audio 10.14 — SHOULD, WOULD, and COULD</p><p>should, should I [ʃəәd‿aɪ], should I try?</p><p>should, should we [ʃəә‿wi], should we leave?</p><p>could, could I [kəәd‿aɪ], could I try?</p><p>would, would we [wəә‿wi], would we be late?</p><p>would, would he [wəәd‿i], would he care?</p><p>engl.io/a3k</p><p>Test yourself: Audio 10.15 — Is the Word Reduced?</p><p>You’ll hear fourteen words. They are all words studied in this chapter, but some</p><p>are reduced and some are not. Which words are reduced? All the words are</p><p>listed in alphabetical order below — that is not the order on the audio file.</p><p>First, just write down if the word is reduced, ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Then listen several</p><p>more times, and try to write down which word you’re hearing. Answers in the</p><p>Answers Appendix.</p><p>Audio 10.15 — Is the Word Reduced?</p><p>and, as, at, because, can, could, do, for, or, should, them,</p><p>to, your, was engl.io/a3n</p><p>A Note on Speaking and Writing</p><p>In some styles of writing, you’ll see some of these spoken English reductions</p><p>written. For example, you might see ‘sorta’ instead of ‘sort of’. Though it’s</p><p>http://engl.io/a3j</p><p>http://engl.io/a3k</p><p>http://engl.io/a3n</p><p>196</p><p>important to use spoken reductions like ‘sorta’, I recommend not using these</p><p>writing reductions as they are very informal and not appropriate for most</p><p>situations.</p><p>197</p><p>Chapter 11</p><p>Contractions</p><p>A contraction is when we take two words and condense them down into one: did</p><p>not → didn’t.</p><p>They’re used in writing</p><p>Of the three topics I mentioned earlier—sounds, melody and rhythm, and</p><p>placement—placement is the least concrete and most difficult to teach. But it’s</p><p>incredibly important. What is placement? It affects the overall timbre or quality</p><p>of a sound. (If the word ‘timbre’ is new to you, don’t worry. I didn’t hear it until I</p><p>was in college studying music!) Think of a violin: it can play a lovely little</p><p>melody. A flute can play the same melody, the same exact pitches and rhythm.</p><p>http://engl.io/ab1</p><p>12</p><p>But do they sound the same? Definitely not. Even if you can’t see the</p><p>instrument, you know if it’s a flute or a violin. The difference is the timbre, the</p><p>quality of the sound. That sound defines the instrument more than the pitches or</p><p>the rhythm it plays. That’s important.</p><p>The instrument of the voice is the same: the vocal cords (also called vocal folds)</p><p>vibrate involuntarily as the air pushes through from the lungs below, and the body</p><p>around that shapes the sound to give it its timbre.</p><p>Video 1.1 — Path of the Voice</p><p>Learn about how the voice works, placement, and how</p><p>tension lifts placement. engl.io/ab7</p><p>Through teaching, I’ve learned how tension affects the placement of speech.</p><p>American English has a very relaxed throat and neck. This allows the placement</p><p>of the voice to be low. I feel it coming from my chest or the base of my neck.</p><p>Very few of my students have a low, American placement when they first come to</p><p>study with me—the placement of other languages is higher in the face, or</p><p>sometimes further back in the throat.</p><p>Video 1.2 — Placement</p><p>Learn more about what placement is and how to find</p><p>different placements in your body. engl.io/abf</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 1.2 — Placement.</p><p>Let’s experiment with placement. I’ll say the part of my body where I feel the</p><p>resonance, then I’ll make a vowel sound from that space. First, just listen and</p><p>see if you can hear the difference. Then, imitate the sounds and try to put the</p><p>resonance in the same part in your body. Touch that part while you make the</p><p>sound: hand flat on the chest, fingers on the nose, etc. Can you feel your voice</p><p>in different parts of your body? If you can, great! Think about always letting the</p><p>voice rest low, resonance in the chest, through relaxation. Speaking from here</p><p>will sound very American!</p><p>It’s important to note that speaking with a low resonance does not mean simply</p><p>lowering the pitch. If you lower the pitch but still have tension in your throat and</p><p>neck, your voice won’t have the relaxed nature of American speech. Relax and</p><p>http://engl.io/ab7</p><p>http://engl.io/abf</p><p>13</p><p>open up your neck and throat to let the resonance sink lower — never try to force</p><p>your voice down.</p><p>Audio 1.2 — Placement</p><p>engl.io/abt</p><p>You can probably hear the different placements on the audio file, but maybe</p><p>you’re not good at imitating them yet. That’s ok. Definitely keep working at</p><p>imitating the sound, but let’s get you some other tools too.</p><p>The only thing between you and American placement is tension. Many</p><p>languages involve the use or engagement of some part of the body that</p><p>American English does not. I’m going to call this extra engagement, or work,</p><p>‘tension’. Any extra tension in the neck, throat, or tongue lifts the placement.</p><p>Remember, in American English placement is very low. That means you need to</p><p>release tension in the neck, throat, and tongue to let the placement sink down.</p><p>You can’t force it.</p><p>How do you release it? If your native language involves some tension, then that</p><p>tension feels very natural to you and can be hard to identify. This is where you</p><p>need to use your body and not just your mind. To help you develop body-</p><p>knowledge and relaxation of the neck, throat, and tongue, take a look at the</p><p>following set of videos.</p><p>Do the exercises along with the videos. Try to feel yourself relaxed, even use</p><p>your imagination to picture yourself relaxed. Make some vowels sounds,</p><p>uuuhhhhhh. Then speak your native language – but pay attention right before</p><p>you do. What changes in your body? Is tension added anywhere? If you noted</p><p>anything, write it down. Do this activity with all of the four relaxation videos.</p><p>Video 1.3 — Neck and Throat Relaxation</p><p>Exercises to help you release tension in your neck and</p><p>throat. engl.io/abm</p><p>Video 1.4 — Jaw Relaxation</p><p>Exercises to help you release tension in your jaw.</p><p>engl.io/ab2</p><p>http://engl.io/abt</p><p>http://engl.io/abm</p><p>http://engl.io/ab2</p><p>14</p><p>Video 1.5 — Tongue Relaxation</p><p>Exercises to help you release tension in your tongue.</p><p>engl.io/ab9</p><p>Video 1.6 — Lip Relaxation</p><p>Exercises to help you release tension in your lips.</p><p>engl.io/abx</p><p>Now let’s talk about the soft palate. This is the soft palate:</p><p>Tension isn’t the only thing that can lift your</p><p>placement, so can a lowered soft palate. This</p><p>puts the sound in the nose. Some languages</p><p>have a lowered soft palate on many sounds,</p><p>including vowels (for example, French,</p><p>Portuguese, Vietnamese, and Chinese – for a</p><p>list, see wikipedia’s page on nasal vowels:</p><p>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_vowel).</p><p>When the soft palate is lifted, it is closed. This</p><p>is what we want for all sounds in American</p><p>English except M [m], N[n], and NG [ŋ]. When</p><p>it is lowered, it’s open. This allows air to go</p><p>past it and up into the nasal cavity, making the</p><p>sound nasal. This brings the placement higher,</p><p>into the nose.</p><p>It’s hard to feel and move the soft palate. We</p><p>all do it without thinking about it as needed for</p><p>the sounds in our native languages. If you have</p><p>nasal vowels in your native language, you’ll</p><p>probably need to think about this when working</p><p>on English.</p><p>If you think your soft palate isn’t closed, there</p><p>are a couple of things you can do to lift and</p><p>close it. First, think of creating more space in</p><p>the back of throat. Sometimes this thought</p><p>helps students naturally close the soft palate.</p><p>http://engl.io/ab9</p><p>http://engl.io/abx</p><p>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_vowel</p><p>15</p><p>Second, think of drinking through a straw (or really do it!). What changes in your</p><p>throat? Your soft palate has to close so the water doesn’t go up into your nasal</p><p>passages. Can you identify what it feels like in the back of your throat? The</p><p>more you can identify and get used to the idea of a lifted and closed soft palate,</p><p>the easier it will be for you to speak with a low placement.</p><p>Video 1.7 — Soft Palate</p><p>Learn what the soft palate is, and how work with it.</p><p>engl.io/abr</p><p>Everything you do in the rest of this book should build on what you</p><p>worked on here. If you work on rhythm, sounds, linking, reductions, or</p><p>anything else without really getting this concept of low, relaxed placement</p><p>when speaking English, you’ll never sound truly American. Did you</p><p>watch each video and do each audio exercise once? That’s probably not</p><p>enough. Watch each video at least one more time, and do the audio</p><p>exercises several more times. Let your body and mind work together,</p><p>thinking about what you’re doing, but also feeling it.</p><p>Now we’re ready to start talking about rhythm and sounds – but don’t ever stop</p><p>thinking about placement!</p><p>http://engl.io/abr</p><p>16</p><p>Chapter 2</p><p>Introduction to Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation</p><p>Many students want to go right to the sounds. In fact, you might be skimming</p><p>this on your way to the sounds section. STOP! Go back! Start with placement,</p><p>then spend time here with stress. This book is arranged this way for a reason.</p><p>Sounds don’t matter the most—character matters the most. The character is</p><p>based on the placement, rhythm, and melody. We will get to the sounds, but first</p><p>lay the foundation. It is your best chance at successfully transforming your</p><p>spoken English.</p><p>In some languages, all syllables are the same length. In English, we have long</p><p>(stressed) and short (unstressed) syllables. This distinction is very important.</p><p>You can never sound American if you make all the syllables the same length.</p><p>This is something that</p><p>and speech, both professional and casual. Some</p><p>students don’t want to use them because they think they aren’t clear enough.</p><p>That’s not true! They’re very clear, and they’re necessary to use if you want to</p><p>sound American. (Look, that paragraph had six contractions!)</p><p>Why do we use contractions? Contractions allow us to smooth out speech and</p><p>make some function words shorter. They serve the same purpose as the</p><p>function words that reduce—they allow us to have shorter words to contrast with</p><p>the longer, more important words and syllables.</p><p>N’T Contractions</p><p>Contractions with ‘not’ are common: didn’t, shouldn’t, wouldn’t, won’t, couldn’t,</p><p>isn’t, aren’t, wasn’t, weren’t, haven’t hasn’t, hadn’t, doesn’t. Each of these words</p><p>is a contraction of the word before the N’T and ‘not’: didn’t = did not. There is</p><p>one exception: Will not = won’t, not willn’t. Willn’t isn’t a word. I don’t know how</p><p>or why this happened!</p><p>198</p><p>The N’T sound is interesting: combine the nasality of the N with the stop of the</p><p>T. The last syllable should feel really abrupt because of this stop quality. There</p><p>is no release of the T.</p><p>You’ll also hear Americans reduce further, and drop the stop quality of the T</p><p>when the contraction is not at the end of a thought group. Then it’s just an N</p><p>sound linking right into the next word:</p><p>I wasn’t there. [aɪ ˈwʌz əәnˈðɛəәɹ]</p><p>However, I encourage students to try to put the stop quality into the nasal N</p><p>sound to make the N’T contractions clearer, at least at the beginning of your work</p><p>on contractions.</p><p>Video 11.1 — N’T Contractions</p><p>See the n’t sound in action in all of the N’T contractions.</p><p>engl.io/a41</p><p>Video 11.2 — Interview a Broadcaster: Rehema Ellis</p><p>NBC Newscaster Rehema Ellis uses many N’T contractions</p><p>in this interview. A great example of how important they are</p><p>in real life, conversational American English.</p><p>engl.io/a44</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.1 — N’T Contractions.</p><p>You’ll hear each N’T contraction (except for can’t, which comes next) and a</p><p>sample sentence. Notice how there is no ending T sound, just a shortened, cut-</p><p>off N sound. Try it yourself.</p><p>Audio 11.1 — N’T Contractions</p><p>is not = isn’t [ˈɪz əәnt￨]: Isn’t it nice?</p><p>are not = aren’t [ɑɹnt￨]: We aren’t late.</p><p>was not = wasn’t [wʌz əәnt￨]: It wasn’t bad.</p><p>were not = weren’t [wɜɹnt￨]: We weren’t there.</p><p>have not = haven’t [ˈhæv əәnt￨]: I haven’t seen it.</p><p>has not = hasn’t [ˈhæz əәnt￨]: He hasn’t seen it.</p><p>had not = hadn’t [ˈhæd￨əәnt￨]: We hadn’t heard that.</p><p>will not = won’t [woʊnt￨]: I won’t go.</p><p>engl.io/a48</p><p>http://engl.io/a41</p><p>http://engl.io/a44</p><p>http://engl.io/a48</p><p>199</p><p>would not = wouldn’t [ˈwʊd￨əәnt￨]: I wouldn’t say that.</p><p>could not = couldn’t [ˈkʊd￨əәnt￨]: I couldn’t see.</p><p>should not = shouldn’t [ˈʃʊd￨əәnt￨]: I shouldn’t say this.</p><p>do not = don’t [doʊnt￨]: Don’t say that.</p><p>does not = doesn’t [ˈdʌz əәnt￨]: It doesn’t say.</p><p>did not = didn’t [ˈdɪd￨əәnt￨]: We didn’t know.</p><p>Can vs. Can’t</p><p>Can’t (cannot) is one of the hardest contractions … if we don’t really pronounce</p><p>the T, how is it different from can?</p><p>There are two ways to tell can and can’t apart.</p><p>1. Often, can is reduced. That means the vowel changes from the AA as in</p><p>BAT [æ] vowel to the schwa [əә] sound, [kəәn]. The vowel in can’t [kænt￨]</p><p>never reduces.</p><p>2. Just like with the other N’T contractions above, we can identify can’t by how</p><p>abrupt it is. Can’t is shorter and more abrupt than can when can is not</p><p>reduced and has a full vowel.</p><p>CAN</p><p>unreduced [kæn]</p><p>reduced [kəәn]</p><p>CAN’T</p><p>[kænt￨]</p><p>These differences are subtle and can be really confusing when English isn’t your</p><p>native language. Even native speakers need to ask for clarification on can and</p><p>can’t at times. It’s ok if you have to do this too.</p><p>Video 11.3 — CAN vs. CAN’T</p><p>Though it can be really hard to hear the difference in these</p><p>two words, this video will help. engl.io/a4a</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.2 — Can vs. Can’t.</p><p>You’ll hear each set of phrases, then just can vs. can’t twice, and the phrases</p><p>again. Can is reduced—the vowel changes to the schwa just like you learned in</p><p>the last chapter. It’s very fast. Can you hear the difference?</p><p>http://engl.io/a4a</p><p>200</p><p>Audio 11.2 — Can vs. Can’t</p><p>I can hear you, I can’t hear you.</p><p>We can come, we can’t come</p><p>I can come, I can’t come.</p><p>They can leave, they can’t leave.</p><p>engl.io/a4c</p><p>TO BE and TO HAVE Contractions</p><p>These two sets of contractions go together because sometimes they make the</p><p>same word.</p><p>For example:</p><p>she is → she’s [ʃiz]</p><p>she has → she’s [ʃiz]</p><p>Question words can use ‘does’. Then there are three contractions that sound the</p><p>same:</p><p>who is → who’s [huz]</p><p>who has → who’s [huz]</p><p>who does → who’s [huz]</p><p>These contractions, except for the question word contractions, will be unstressed</p><p>in sentences. That means you want to say them quickly. This means Americans</p><p>will sometimes reduce certain contractions by changing the vowel to the schwa.</p><p>In the case of he’s, many Americans will reduce by dropping the H [h] consonant</p><p>(except when it begins a thought group). In a couple of cases, it’s, that’s, and</p><p>what’s, Americans might drop the vowel and beginning consonant completely</p><p>and just use the [ts] cluster. In these cases, What’s up? can sound like tsup?</p><p>TO BE HAVE + HAS</p><p>I I am = I’m [aɪm] or [əәm]</p><p>I’m late.</p><p>I have = I’ve [aɪv] or [əәm]</p><p>I’ve been there.</p><p>you you are = you’re [jʊəәr], [jɔɹ],</p><p>or [jəәɹ]</p><p>You’re late.</p><p>you have = you’ve [juv] or</p><p>[jəәv]</p><p>You’ve been there.</p><p>he he is = he’s [hiz] or [iz]</p><p>He’s late.</p><p>he has = he’s [hiz] or [iz]</p><p>He’s been there.</p><p>she she is = she’s [ʃiz]</p><p>She’s late.</p><p>she has = she’s [ʃiz]</p><p>She’s been there.</p><p>http://engl.io/a4c</p><p>201</p><p>it it is = it’s [ɪts] or [ts]</p><p>It’s late.</p><p>it has = it’s [ɪts] or [ts]</p><p>It’s got to be on time.</p><p>noun the dog is = the dog’s [ðəә</p><p>dɔgz]</p><p>The dog’s hungry.</p><p>the dog has = the dog’s [ðəә</p><p>dɔgz]</p><p>The dog’s been fed.</p><p>proper noun Mary is = Mary’s [ˈmεəәɹ‿iz]</p><p>Mary’s late.</p><p>Mary has = Mary’s</p><p>[ˈmεəәɹ‿iz]</p><p>Mary’s been there.</p><p>we we are = we’re [wəәɹ]</p><p>We’re late.</p><p>we have = we’ve [wiv]</p><p>We’ve been there.</p><p>they they are = they’re [ðεəәɹ] or</p><p>[ðəәɹ]</p><p>They’re late.</p><p>they have = they’ve [ðeɪv]</p><p>They’ve been there.</p><p>plural noun* the dogs are = the dogs’re</p><p>[ðəә ˈdɔgz‿əәɹ]</p><p>The dogs’re hungry.</p><p>the dogs have = the dogs’ve</p><p>[ðəә ˈdɔgz‿əәv]</p><p>The dogs’ve been fed.</p><p>that that is = that’s [ðæts] or</p><p>[ðəәts] or [ts]</p><p>That’s okay.</p><p>that has = that’s [ðæts] or</p><p>[ðəәts] or [ts]</p><p>That’s been a problem.</p><p>Question Word</p><p>Bonus: DOES</p><p>who who is = who’s [huz]</p><p>Who’s late?</p><p>who are = who’re [ˈhu əәɹ]</p><p>Who’re those people?</p><p>who has = who’s [huz]</p><p>Who’s been there?</p><p>who have = who’ve [huv]</p><p>The people who’ve left</p><p>didn’t want to stay.</p><p>who does =</p><p>who’s [huz]</p><p>Who’s he like?</p><p>what what is = what’s [wʌts]</p><p>What’s going on?</p><p>what are = what’re [ˈwʌt əәɹ]</p><p>What’re you doing?</p><p>what has = what’s [wʌts]</p><p>What’s been going on?</p><p>what have = what’ve</p><p>What’ve you been doing?</p><p>What does =</p><p>what’s [wʌts]</p><p>What’s he</p><p>need?</p><p>when when is = when’s [wεnz]</p><p>When’s it going to be over?</p><p>when are = when’re</p><p>[ˈwεn‿əәɹ]</p><p>When’re they arriving?</p><p>when has = when’s [wεnz]</p><p>When has he seen it?</p><p>when have = when’ve [ˈwεn</p><p>əәv]</p><p>When’ve you tried?</p><p>When does =</p><p>when’s [wεnz]</p><p>When’s he</p><p>leaving?</p><p>202</p><p>where where is = where’s [wεəәɹz]</p><p>Where’s the bathroom?</p><p>where are = where’re</p><p>Where’re you going?</p><p>where has = where’s</p><p>[wεəәɹz]</p><p>Where’s she been?</p><p>where have = where’ve</p><p>Where’ve you been?</p><p>Where does =</p><p>where’s [wεəәɹz]</p><p>Where’s he</p><p>keep it?</p><p>why why is = why’s [waɪz]</p><p>Why’s he leaving?</p><p>why are = why’re</p><p>Why’re you crying?</p><p>why has = why’s [waɪz]</p><p>Why’s he given up?</p><p>why have = why’ve</p><p>Why’ve they stopped</p><p>coming?</p><p>why does =</p><p>why’s [waɪz]</p><p>Why’s he need</p><p>it?</p><p>how how is = how’s [haʊz]</p><p>How’s it going?</p><p>how are = how’re</p><p>How’re things?</p><p>how has = how’s [haʊz]</p><p>How’s it been going?</p><p>how have = how’ve</p><p>How’ve they already</p><p>finished?</p><p>how does =</p><p>how’s [haʊz]</p><p>How’s that</p><p>sound?</p><p>Three things to note about these contractions:</p><p>1. Some contractions are the same. That’s ok. Context is how native</p><p>speakers know what is being said, just like with any homophone</p><p>(there/their/they’re). It’s rare that there would be confusion in these cases.</p><p>2. *The plural noun contractions aren’t really contractions. They would never</p><p>be written, though they are spoken.</p><p>Example: The dogs’re</p><p>This is really an ‘are’ reduction. The word ARE will reduce to the schwa-R</p><p>[əәɹ] sound, and it will sound like a contraction.</p><p>Example: The dogs’ve</p><p>This is really a ‘have’ reduction. The word HAVE reduces to [əәv], and it will</p><p>sound like a contraction.</p><p>3. It’s = it is, which is different from “its” (though it’s pronounced the same,</p><p>[ɪts]). “Its” shows possession: “The bird build its nest.”</p><p>Mary’s = Mary is, but can also show possession: Mary’s books, or, the books</p><p>that belong to Mary.</p><p>203</p><p>Video 11.4 — TO BE Contractions</p><p>Study many of these contractions in this real life English</p><p>video. Notice how the TO BE contractions are often</p><p>followed by gonna — you’ll learn more about that in the next</p><p>chapter.</p><p>engl.io/a4e</p><p>Video 11.5 — I’m Coming</p><p>Study the I’m contraction and reduction in this in-depth</p><p>phrase study. engl.io/a4g</p><p>Video 11.6 — YOU’RE Contraction</p><p>This contraction sounds just like the function word we</p><p>studied in the last chapter, your. engl.io/a1k</p><p>Video 11.7 — Interview a Broadcaster: Erica Hill</p><p>NBC Newscaster Erica Hill uses lots of contractions in her</p><p>speech. engl.io/a4m</p><p>Video 11.8 — That’s / It’s / What’s Reduction</p><p>These can all reduce to just the [ts] sound. What’s up</p><p>[tsʌp]? engl.io/a4p</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.3 — TO BE and TO HAVE Contractions.</p><p>You’ll hear some of the contractions in the chart above with a sample sentence.</p><p>You’ll hear the contraction twice. Make sure you’re still saying the contraction in</p><p>the sentence, and not pronouncing both words.</p><p>http://engl.io/a4e</p><p>http://engl.io/a4g</p><p>http://engl.io/a1k</p><p>http://engl.io/a4m</p><p>http://engl.io/a4p</p><p>204</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.3 — TO BE and TO HAVE</p><p>Contractions</p><p>I’m — I’m sorry.</p><p>I’ve — I’ve been there.</p><p>You’re — You’re right.</p><p>You’ve — You’ve seen it?</p><p>He’s — He’s okay. [he is]</p><p>We’re — We’re going.</p><p>We’ve — We’ve tried.</p><p>They’re — They’re great.</p><p>They’ve — They’ve known a while.</p><p>Who’s — Who’s there? [who is]</p><p>What’s — What’s it say? [what does]</p><p>When’s — When’s it been better? [when has]</p><p>Where’s — Where’s the report? [where is]</p><p>Why’s — Why’s she here? [why is]</p><p>How’s — How’s it going? [how is]</p><p>engl.io/a4s</p><p>LET’S Contraction</p><p>This one doesn’t get to be in a group because there’s nothing else quite like it!</p><p>Let us = let’s. Just add the S sound at the end: [lɛts]. This contraction is unique</p><p>because, unlike the others, we generally don’t use it in its two-word form, ‘let us’.</p><p>Example Sentences:</p><p>Let’s try again.</p><p>Let’s go.</p><p>Let’s wait and see</p><p>Modal Verb Contractions</p><p>We can also make modal verb contractions with have:</p><p>would’ve, should’ve, could’ve, might’ve, must’ve</p><p>They can be pronounced two different ways. The first way is to reduce have to</p><p>[əәv]. Just add that syllable at the end of the word. This means the T in might will</p><p>become a Flap T because it comes between two vowels. But the T in must stays</p><p>a True T because it is not between two vowels.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.4 — Modal Verb Contractions.</p><p>You’ll hear each contraction twice, then the sentence once.</p><p>http://engl.io/a4s</p><p>205</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.5 — Modal Verb Contractions, Slow Motion.</p><p>You’ll hear each contraction once in slow motion. Notice how the first syllable is</p><p>stressed in all of these contractions. They all have the pattern DA-da. After</p><p>working with this audio file, go back to the audio file with the contractions at</p><p>regular pace. How short can you make the second, unstressed syllable [əәv]?</p><p>Audio 11.4 — Modal Verb Contractions</p><p>would’ve [ˈwʊ‿dəәv]</p><p>I would’ve been there.</p><p>should’ve [ˈʃʊ‿dəәv]</p><p>I should’ve left.</p><p>could’ve [ˈkʊ‿dəәv]</p><p>You could’ve gotten hurt.</p><p>might’ve [ˈmaɪ‿dəәv]</p><p>That might’ve been better.</p><p>must’ve [ˈmʌs‿təәv]</p><p>That must’ve been hard.</p><p>engl.io/a4u</p><p>Audio 11.5 — Modal Verb Contractions, Slow Motion</p><p>would’ve [ˈwʊ‿dəәv]</p><p>should’ve [ˈʃʊ‿dəәv]</p><p>could’ve [ˈkʊ‿dəәv]</p><p>might’ve [ˈmaɪ‿dəәv]</p><p>must’ve [ˈmʌs‿təәv]</p><p>engl.io/a4w</p><p>The second way to pronounce these contractions is to reduce them further by</p><p>dropping the V sound. This means you just add the schwa to the end of each</p><p>word:</p><p>must’ve [ˈmʌs‿təә]</p><p>You can pronounce them either way, both reductions sound natural to</p><p>Americans.</p><p>http://engl.io/a4u</p><p>http://engl.io/a4w</p><p>206</p><p>Video 11.9 — Shoulda, Woulda, Coulda</p><p>Study examples and reductions of these modal contractions:</p><p>should have, would have, could have. engl.io/a4y</p><p>WILL Contractions</p><p>These contractions are straightforward: just add ’ll to the end of the word when</p><p>writing. For pronunciation, just add a Dark L to the end. If the word before</p><p>ended in a vowel or diphthong, like she, then just add the Dark L sound. It does</p><p>not make a new syllable. But if the final sound of the word before was a</p><p>consonant, the Dark L does feel like a new syllable. Think of it as [əәl] if you were</p><p>to write it in IPA, and make it as quick as possible.</p><p>I will — I’ll [aɪl], [ɔl], or [əәl]— I’ll see you later.</p><p>you will — you’ll [jul] or [jəәl] — You’ll see.</p><p>he will — he’ll [hil], [hɪl], or [həәl] — He’ll be here. If he’ll isn’t at the beginning</p><p>of the sentence, then you can reduce the vowel and drop the H: [ɪl] or</p><p>[əәl]</p><p>she will — she’ll [ʃil], [ʃɪl], or [ʃəәl] — She’ll try.</p><p>it will — it’ll [ɪd‿əәl] — It’ll be great.</p><p>Mary will — Mary’ll* [ˈmɛəәɹ i əәl] — Mary’ll be there.</p><p>we will — we’ll [wil], [wɪl], or [wəәl] — We’ll see.</p><p>they will — they’ll [ðɛɪl] or [ðəәl] — They’ll be ok.</p><p>the dogs — the dogs’ll* [dɔgz‿əәl] — The dogs’ll be hungry.</p><p>that will — that’ll [ðæd‿el] — That’ll be nice.</p><p>who will — who’ll [hul] — Who’ll be there?</p><p>what will — what’ll [wʌd‿əәl] — What’ll they say?</p><p>where will — where’ll [wɛəәɹ‿əәl] — Where’ll it be?</p><p>when will — when’ll [wɛn‿el] — When’ll you know?</p><p>why will — why’ll [waɪ‿əәl] — Why’ll they think that?</p><p>how will — how’ll [haʊ‿əәl] — How’ll you get home?</p><p>*Note: it’s not grammatically correct to write a ’ll contraction with a noun, singular</p><p>(Mary’ll) or plural (the dogs’ll), but it happens frequently in spoken English.</p><p>Some of these contractions will reduce even further, just like you’re. Not only do</p><p>you reduce ‘will’ to the dark L and add it to the end, but change the vowel.</p><p>I’ll, fully pronounced, sounds just like the word ‘aisle’ [aɪl]. But it’s much more</p><p>common to reduce I’ll to make it shorter. Then it sounds like the word ‘all’ [ɔl], or</p><p>http://engl.io/a4y</p><p>207</p><p>even ‘all’ reduced, [əәl]. In this case it’s very fast and even unclear. Just think of</p><p>adding a Dark L consonant to the beginning of the next word: I’ll try = ltry.</p><p>You’ll fully pronounced has the OO as in BOO vowel [jul]. But when we speed it</p><p>up in conversational speech, it changes to the schwa: [jəәl].</p><p>He’ll [hil], she’ll [ʃil], and we’ll [wil], fully pronounced, have the EE as in SHE</p><p>vowel [i]. That means that he’ll sounds like ‘heal’ and we’ll sounds like ‘wheel’.</p><p>But when we speed it up in everyday speech, this vowel relaxes into the IH as in</p><p>SIT vowel [ɪ], or maybe even the schwa [əә].</p><p>They’ll will also reduce, so the AY as in SAY diphthong [eɪ] becomes the schwa</p><p>[əә].</p><p>It’ll [ɪd‿əәl], what’ll [wʌd‿əәl], and that’ll [ðæd‿el] are interesting because the final T</p><p>changes to a Flap T. This is because it comes between two vowels: the T, and</p><p>the vowel-like sound of the Dark L. Flap T followed by the Dark L is a</p><p>combination that’s very hard for some students, appearing also, for example, in</p><p>the word ‘little’. When you lift the tongue to the roof of the mouth, don’t let it</p><p>bounce off the roof of the mouth like you normally will for the Flap T. Instead,</p><p>you can leave the front part of the tongue</p><p>where it is and engage the back part of</p><p>the tongue, tightening it up a little or shifting it back. That makes the dark part of</p><p>the Dark L. As soon as the front part of the tongue hits the roof of your mouth,</p><p>make a Dark L sound with the back of the tongue.</p><p>Video 11.10 — We’ll see</p><p>Study we’ll in this in-depth phrase study.</p><p>engl.io/a51</p><p>Video 11.11 — I’ll think about it</p><p>Study I’ll in this in-depth phrase study. Also, notice the</p><p>Flap T to link the words about and it. engl.io/a53</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.6 — ‘LL Contractions.</p><p>You’ll hear several ‘LL contractions, twice, with a sample sentence. Focus on the</p><p>back of the tongue making the Dark L sound. Make sure you’re still saying the</p><p>contraction in the sentence, and not pronouncing both words.</p><p>http://engl.io/a51</p><p>http://engl.io/a53</p><p>208</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.7 — ‘LL Contractions, Slow Motion.</p><p>You’ll hear the same ‘LL contractions in slow motion. Notice the shape of the</p><p>voice. The Dark L sound happens on the downward movement of pitch, the</p><p>curve down.</p><p>Audio 11.6 — ‘LL Contractions</p><p>I’ll — I’ll see you later.</p><p>You’ll — you’ll see.</p><p>He’ll — He’ll be here.</p><p>She’ll — She’ll try.</p><p>It’ll — It’ll be great.</p><p>Mary’ll — Mary’ll be there.</p><p>We’ll — We’ll see.</p><p>They’ll — They’ll be okay.</p><p>The dogs’ll — The dogs’ll be hungry.</p><p>That’ll — That’ll be nice.</p><p>Who’ll — Who’ll be there?</p><p>What’ll — What’ll they say?</p><p>Where’ll — Where’ll it be?</p><p>When’ll — When’ll you know?</p><p>Why’ll — Why’ll they think that?</p><p>How’ll — How’ll you get home?</p><p>engl.io/a56</p><p>Audio 11.7 — ‘LL Contractions, Slow Motion</p><p>engl.io/a58</p><p>WOULD, HAD, and DID Contractions</p><p>Take a look at the following chart. You’ll notice that just like some of the To Be</p><p>and Have/Has contractions, ALL of these contractions are the same:</p><p>I would = I’d</p><p>I had = I’d</p><p>We also contract DID, but only in questions. In these cases, again, it’s the same</p><p>contraction:</p><p>why would = why’d</p><p>why had = why’d</p><p>why did = why’d</p><p>http://engl.io/a56</p><p>http://engl.io/a58</p><p>209</p><p>Mostly, to pronounce these contractions, you simply add the D sound to the end</p><p>of the word. But for some words we add [əәd] or [ɪd], which adds an extra</p><p>syllable. See the chart below. The phrase ‘what did’ [ˈwʌd‿ɪd] is especially</p><p>common—and one that can reduce further. We often drop the second syllable</p><p>and just say [wʌd]. For example:</p><p>What did he say? [ˈwʌd‿iˈseɪ]</p><p>Video 11.12 — WHAT DID Reduction</p><p>Study the different ways this common phrase can be</p><p>reduced. engl.io/a5a</p><p>Even though the different contractions sound the same, people will know your</p><p>meaning from the context.</p><p>These contractions, except for the question word contractions, will be unstressed</p><p>in sentences. That means you want to say them quickly. This means Americans</p><p>will sometimes reduce the vowel in certain contractions to the schwa. In the case</p><p>of he’d, many Americans will reduce by dropping the H [h] consonant (except</p><p>when it begins a thought group).</p><p>WOULD HAD</p><p>I I would = I’d [aɪd] or [əәd]</p><p>I’d like that.</p><p>I had = I’d [aɪd] or [əәd]</p><p>I’d seen it already.</p><p>you you would = you’d [jud] or</p><p>[jəәd]</p><p>You’d like it.</p><p>you had = you’d [jud] or</p><p>[jəәd]</p><p>You’d already done it.</p><p>he he would = he’d [hid] or</p><p>[id]</p><p>He’d like it.</p><p>he had = he’d [hid] or [id]</p><p>He’d already done it.</p><p>she she would = she’d [ʃid] or</p><p>[ʃəәd]</p><p>She’d like it.</p><p>she had = she’d [ʃid] or</p><p>[ʃəәd]</p><p>She’d already been</p><p>there.</p><p>it it would = it’d [ɪd‿əәd]</p><p>It’d seem like it.</p><p>it had = it’d [ɪd‿əәd]</p><p>It’d already ended.</p><p>http://engl.io/a5a</p><p>210</p><p>noun the dog would = the</p><p>dog’d [ðəә‿ˈdɔg‿əәd]</p><p>The dog’d</p><p>The dog’d get sick.</p><p>the dog had = the dog’d</p><p>[ðəә‿ˈdɔg‿əәd]</p><p>The dog’d been sick for a</p><p>week.</p><p>proper noun Mary would = Mary’d</p><p>[ˈmεəәɹ id]</p><p>Mary’d like it.</p><p>Mary had = Mary’d</p><p>[ˈmεəәɹ id]</p><p>Mary’d already been</p><p>there.</p><p>we we would = we’d [wid] or</p><p>[wəәd]</p><p>We’d like to see it.</p><p>We had = we’d [wid] or</p><p>[wəәd]</p><p>We’d seen it before.</p><p>they they would = they’d</p><p>[ðeɪd]</p><p>They’d like to see it.</p><p>they had = they’d [ðeɪd]</p><p>they’d seen it before</p><p>plural noun the dogs would = dogs’d</p><p>[ˈdɔg zəәd]</p><p>The dogs’d like to be</p><p>walked.</p><p>the dogs had = dogs’d</p><p>[ˈdɔg zəәd]</p><p>The dogs’d been walked</p><p>already.</p><p>that that would = that’d [ˈðæd</p><p>əәd]</p><p>That’d be nice.</p><p>that had = that’d [ˈðæd</p><p>əәd]</p><p>That’d been over for an</p><p>hour.</p><p>Question Word</p><p>Bonus: DID</p><p>who who would = who’d [hud]</p><p>Who’d like to see it?</p><p>who had = who’d [hud]</p><p>Who’d already seen it?</p><p>who did = who’d</p><p>[hud]</p><p>Who’d he like?</p><p>what what would = what’d</p><p>[ˈwʌd əәd]</p><p>* we don’t actually use</p><p>this contraction in speech</p><p>what had = what’d</p><p>[ˈwʌd‿əәd]</p><p>I thought what’d been</p><p>said was the truth.</p><p>what did = what’d</p><p>[ˈwʌd‿ɪd] or [wʌd]</p><p>What’d you think?</p><p>when when would = when’d</p><p>[wεnd]</p><p>When’d you like it by?</p><p>when had = when’d</p><p>[wεnd]</p><p>When’d he seen it?</p><p>when did = when’d</p><p>[wεnd]</p><p>When’d she leave?</p><p>where where would = where’d</p><p>[wεəәɹd]</p><p>Where’d you like it?</p><p>where had = where’d</p><p>[wεəәɹd]</p><p>Where’d he seen it?</p><p>where did = where’d</p><p>[wεəәɹd]</p><p>Where’d they go?</p><p>why why would = why’d [waɪd]</p><p>Why’d I lie?</p><p>why had = why’d [waɪd]</p><p>Why’d he been there?</p><p>why did = why’d</p><p>[waɪd]</p><p>Why’d they leave?</p><p>211</p><p>how how would = how’d</p><p>[haʊd]</p><p>How’d you like that?</p><p>how had = how’d [haʊd]</p><p>How’d he already</p><p>known?</p><p>how did = how’d</p><p>[haʊd]</p><p>How’d she know?</p><p>Notice that for the WHAT contractions, I’ve spelled them differently in IPA. I’ve</p><p>made the contraction for ‘what would’ and ‘what had’ with the schwa [ˈwʌd‿əәd],</p><p>and ‘what did’ with the IH as in SIT vowel [ˈwʌd‿ɪd]. Why is this? Usually when</p><p>we reduce vowels, we think of them as reducing to the schwa. But for the word</p><p>‘did’, it already has the IH as in SIT vowel [ɪ], so it seems natural to just make</p><p>that unstressed in the ‘what did’ contraction. Do the schwa [əә] and the</p><p>unstressed [ɪ] sound the same? I think so. I’ve played around with this a lot over</p><p>the years, saying unstressed syllables both ways, and they sound the same.</p><p>Video 11.13 — Contractions</p><p>This is the main contractions video, covering WOULD, HAD,</p><p>and DID contractions, as well as others we studied in this</p><p>chapter.</p><p>engl.io/a5c</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.8 — WOULD, HAD, and DID Reductions.</p><p>You’ll hear several WOULD, HAD, and DID contractions, twice, with a sample</p><p>sentence. If the next word begins with a vowel (like already, or when you drop</p><p>the H on he), try to link the D into that sound. Make sure you’re still saying the</p><p>contraction in the sentence, and not pronouncing both words.</p><p>Audio 11.8 — WOULD, HAD, and DID Reductions</p><p>I’d — I’d already left. [I had]</p><p>You’d — You’d like it. [you would]</p><p>He’d — He’d already done it. [he had]</p><p>We’d — We’d like it. [we would]</p><p>They’d — They’d be okay. [they would]</p><p>Who’d — Who’d think that? [who would]</p><p>When’d — When’d he leave? [when did]</p><p>Where’d — Where’d she go? [where did]</p><p>Why’d — Why’d she say that? [why did]</p><p>How’d — How’d he know? [how did]</p><p>engl.io/a5f</p><p>http://engl.io/a5c</p><p>http://engl.io/a5f</p><p>212</p><p>In this chapter you’ve studied a lot of contractions with question words. Many</p><p>question words start with ‘wh’: what, when, where, why. There are two ways to</p><p>pronounce words like these, either with a clean [w] sound at the beginning, or a</p><p>light H sound at the beginning: [ʰw]. I use the first pronunciation, [w].</p><p>Video 11.14 — Pronunciation of WH Words</p><p>My mom helped me film this video — she makes a clear [ʰw]</p><p>sound! engl.io/a5h</p><p>Using Contractions and Reductions Together</p><p>Reductions can be used with contractions.</p><p>It’s for mom [ɪts fəәɹˈmɑm]</p><p>As you learned in Chapter 9, when you drop the H or TH at the beginning of a</p><p>word, the rest of the word should feel like it’s part of the word before. That can</p><p>feel like a double contraction. In these cases, we drop the T part of the T</p><p>contractions for a smoother link into the next word</p><p>wouldn’t have [ˈwʊd əәn‿əәv] or [ˈwʊd əәn‿əә]</p><p>didn’t her [ˈdɪd əәn‿əәɹ]</p><p>That’s exactly what we want: short, linked together function words.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio</p><p>11.9 — Contractions with Reductions.</p><p>You’ll hear the contraction with the reduction four times. The third time will be in</p><p>slow motion. Then you’ll hear the sentence. In both cases, you’ll hear an N’T</p><p>contraction with a dropping the H reduction. Think of the contraction and</p><p>reduction all as being one word, flowing together without breaks. The contraction</p><p>with the reduction together may feel really fast to you, hard to understand and</p><p>hard to say. Try not to think of saying the words, but just of imitating what you</p><p>hear. Don’t think of it as English, but just sounds and melodies to imitate.</p><p>Audio 11.9 — Contractions with Reductions</p><p>wouldn’t have [ˈwʊd‿əәn‿ev], I wouldn’t have said that.</p><p>didn’t her [dɪd‿əәn‿əәɹ], Didn’t her team win? engl.io/a5k</p><p>Test yourself: Audio 11.10 — What contraction are you hearing?</p><p>You’ll hear 15 different contractions. Write down what you hear, and check your</p><p>answers in the back. You’ll hear each one only once. Listen as many times as</p><p>you need to to get all the answers. Answers are in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>http://engl.io/a5h</p><p>http://engl.io/a5k</p><p>213</p><p>Audio 11.10 — What contraction are you hearing?</p><p>engl.io/a5m</p><p>When NOT to Use Contractions</p><p>There are some cases when we don’t want to use contractions for emphasis and</p><p>clarity. In these cases the word that would normally be contracted will be</p><p>stressed. For example:</p><p>I do NOT want to go in there.</p><p>>> You don’t want to see this, do you?</p><p>>> I WOULD like to see that.</p><p>Even in situations where clarity is not needed, all contractions, except let’s, can</p><p>and will appear as both words rather than a contraction. You certainly don’t need</p><p>to use every contraction every time. However, I do encourage you, especially in</p><p>speaking, to use them frequently to increase the contrast between stressed and</p><p>unstressed words. As you listen to the radio, podcasts, or watch TV, write down</p><p>every contraction you hear. You’ll notice you’re writing down a lot! If you never</p><p>used contractions, your speech wouldn’t sound natural at all.</p><p>To help convince you how important contractions are for sounding natural and</p><p>American, here are three more contractversation videos.</p><p>Video 11.15 — Contractversation</p><p>Topic: My Trip to Florida</p><p>engl.io/a5n</p><p>Video 11.16 — Contractversation</p><p>Topic: Going to the Store</p><p>engl.io/a5p</p><p>Video 11.17 — Contractversation</p><p>Topic: Going on a Date</p><p>engl.io/a5s</p><p>http://engl.io/a5m</p><p>http://engl.io/a5n</p><p>http://engl.io/a5p</p><p>http://engl.io/a5s</p><p>214</p><p>Chapter 12</p><p>Gonna, Wanna, and Gotta</p><p>In this chapter, we keep building your skills to make function words less</p><p>important, and increase the difference between your stressed and</p><p>unstressed syllables.</p><p>The reductions ‘gonna’, ‘wanna’, and ‘gotta’ fill our everyday speech. Don’t</p><p>worry, it’s not just for casual conversation, and it’s not considered</p><p>uneducated to use these reductions. These reductions can find their way</p><p>into important speeches, too.</p><p>Video 12.1 — Presidential Speeches</p><p>Even the President of the United States uses</p><p>gonna/wanna/gotta in important speeches! engl.io/a62</p><p>GONNA</p><p>Going to → gonna [ˈgʌn əә]</p><p>The ‘gonna’ contraction is a two-syllable word with stress on the first syllable.</p><p>The second syllable is just the schwa [əә]—you’ll want to make that very short!</p><p>You just learned the TO BE contractions in Chapter 11, so you know that the</p><p>contraction itself can often be pronounced more than one way, with varying</p><p>levels of reduction. For example, it is = it’s [ɪts] or [ts]. I’ve chosen just one for</p><p>each example below.</p><p>http://engl.io/a62</p><p>215</p><p>I</p><p>I am going to = I’m gonna [aɪmˈgʌn əә]</p><p>I’m gonna be late.</p><p>you</p><p>you are going to = you’re gonna [jəәɹˈgʌn əә]</p><p>You’re gonna be sorry.</p><p>he</p><p>he is going to = he’s gonna [hizˈgʌn əә]</p><p>He’s gonna stop by.</p><p>she</p><p>she is going to = she’s gonna [ʃizˈgʌn əә]</p><p>She’s gonna try to be here.</p><p>it</p><p>it is going to = it’s gonna [ɪtsˈgʌn əә]</p><p>It’s gonna rain today.</p><p>Mary</p><p>Mary is going to = Mary’s gonna [ˈmεeɹ izˈgʌn əә]</p><p>Mary’s gonna do well.</p><p>we</p><p>we are going to = we’re gonna [wəәɹˈgʌn əә]</p><p>We’re gonna have fun.</p><p>they</p><p>they are going to = they’re gonna [ðεəәɹˈgʌn əә]</p><p>They’re gonna drive.</p><p>the dogs</p><p>the dogs are going to = the dogs’re* gonna [ðəә ˈdɔgz əәɹˈgʌn əә]</p><p>The dogs’re* gonna love it.</p><p>*Note: it’s not grammatically correct to write the are contraction with a plural</p><p>noun (the dogs’re), but it happens frequently in spoken English.</p><p>Video 12.2 — How to Pronounce GONNA and WANNA</p><p>Learn the pronunciations, and example sentences for these</p><p>reductions. engl.io/a63</p><p>Video 12.3 — Pronunciation Focus: Gonna</p><p>Analyze three real life examples of gonna in-depth.</p><p>engl.io/a66</p><p>http://engl.io/a63</p><p>http://engl.io/a66</p><p>216</p><p>Video 12.4 — Real Life English: Wedding Venue</p><p>In this video, I walk around our wedding venue getting ready</p><p>for our big day. As I talk, I use a lot of gonna phrases. We</p><p>do this a lot when talking about the future.</p><p>engl.io/a68</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 12.1 — Gonna.</p><p>First you’ll hear just the subject contraction (I’m, you’re) with ‘gonna’ three times,</p><p>the second time in slow motion. Then you’ll hear the whole phrase.</p><p>Audio 12.1 — Gonna</p><p>I’m gonna. I’m gonna be late.</p><p>You’re gonna. You’re gonna be sorry.</p><p>He’s gonna. He’s gonna stop by.</p><p>We’re gonna. We’re gonna have fun!</p><p>They’re gonna. They’re gonna drive.</p><p>engl.io/a6b</p><p>You might hear Americans reduce the first person, I’m gonna, even more.</p><p>Sometimes Americans drop the [g] sound, so it ends up sounding like “Imunna”</p><p>[ˈaɪ‿mʌn‿əә], where the stress switches over to ‘I’ from the first syllable of ‘gonna’.</p><p>They will even drop ‘I’, so it just sounds like “muh” [məә].</p><p>Video 12.5 — I’m Gonna Reduction</p><p>I’m gonna is already a reduction. But you know Americans</p><p>love to shorten familiar phrases! You’ll hear it reduced even</p><p>more. Can you still understand it?</p><p>engl.io/a6d</p><p>WANNA</p><p>Want to → wanna [ˈwɑn əә] or [ˈwʌn əә]</p><p>Just like ‘gonna’, ‘wanna’ is two syllables with stress on the first syllable. You’ll</p><p>hear ‘wanna’ two different ways, with the AH as in FATHER [ɑ] vowel or the UH</p><p>as in BUTTER [ʌ] vowel. I tend to use the UH as in BUTTER vowel.</p><p>I</p><p>I want to = I wanna [aɪˈwɑn əә] or [aɪˈwʌn əә]</p><p>I wanna see.</p><p>http://engl.io/a68</p><p>http://engl.io/a6b</p><p>http://engl.io/a6d</p><p>217</p><p>you</p><p>you want to = you wanna [jəәˈwɑn əә] or [jəәˈwʌn əә]</p><p>Do you wanna head out*?</p><p>he</p><p>he wants to = WAIT! Now we have ‘wants’ instead of ‘want’. Remember,</p><p>‘wanna’ = ‘want to’, not ‘wants to’. That means we can’t use ‘wanna’ with</p><p>the third person singular. We cannot say ‘He wanna’, ‘She wanna’, ‘Mary</p><p>wanna’, etc. For these cases, we will say ‘He wants to’, ‘She wants to’, etc.</p><p>Remember to reduce ‘to’, as you learned in Chapter 10.</p><p>we</p><p>we want to = we wanna [wiˈwɑn əә] or [wiˈwʌn əә]</p><p>We wanna move to Philadelphia.</p><p>they</p><p>they want to = they wanna [ðeɪˈwɑn əә] or [ðeɪˈwʌn əә]</p><p>They wanna come with us.</p><p>the dogs</p><p>the dogs want to = the dogs wanna [ðəә dɔgzˈwɑn əә] or [ðəә dɔgzˈwʌn əә]</p><p>The dogs wanna go outside.</p><p>Video 12.6 — Interview a Broadcaster: Chris Jansing</p><p>Hear NBC Newscaster Chris Jansing’s perfect American</p><p>English — and yes, that includes wanna. engl.io/a6f</p><p>Video 12.7 — Vacation 2012</p><p>More examples of gonna and wanna in real conversational</p><p>English—and the beauty of being on vacation! Also, learn</p><p>the reduction ‘let me’. Have you ever heard someone say</p><p>lemme?</p><p>engl.io/axd</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 12.2 — Wanna.</p><p>First you’ll hear just the subject (I, you, etc.) with ‘wanna’ three times, the second</p><p>time in slow motion. Then you’ll hear the whole phrase. Notice there are fewer</p><p>here—no 3rd person singular (he/she/it). Remember not to use ‘wanna’ in these</p><p>cases.</p><p>http://engl.io/a6f</p><p>http://engl.io/axd</p><p>218</p><p>Audio 12.2 — Wanna</p><p>I wanna. I wanna see.</p><p>You wanna. Do you wanna head out?*</p><p>We wanna. We wanna move to Philadelphia.</p><p>They wanna. They wanna come with us.</p><p>engl.io/a6k</p><p>*The idiom ‘to head out’ means to leave, depart. I use it often when</p><p>leaving friends:</p><p>I’m gonna head out.</p><p>I gotta head out.</p><p>Should we head out?</p><p>GOTTA</p><p>Got to → gotta [ˈgɑd əә]</p><p>‘Gotta’ is also two syllables with stress on the first syllable. It’s important to use</p><p>a Flap T here: don’t stop the air flow, just a quick flap of the tongue as it bounces</p><p>off the roof of the mouth. We use ‘gotta’ with a subject + ‘have’ or ‘has’ + gotta.</p><p>You’ll hear some Americans drop ‘have’ (though not has). For example: ‘I gotta</p><p>go’, ‘you gotta see this’, ‘they gotta stop doing that’, ‘we gotta go’. Again, since</p><p>the second syllable is just the schwa, it should be very short.</p><p>You just learned the HAVE and HAS contractions in Chapter 11, so you know</p><p>that the contraction itself can often be pronounced more than one way, with</p><p>varying levels of reduction. For example, it has = it’s [ɪts] or [ts]. I’ve chosen just</p><p>one for each example below.</p><p>I</p><p>I have got to = I’ve gotta [aɪvˈgɑd əә] or I gotta [aɪˈgɑd əә]</p><p>I gotta go.</p><p>you</p><p>you have got to = you’ve gotta [jəәvˈgɑd əә] or you gotta [jəәˈgɑd əә]</p><p>You’ve gotta see this.</p><p>he</p><p>he has got to = he’s gotta [hizˈgɑd əә]</p><p>He’s gotta know that.</p><p>she</p><p>she has got to = she’s gotta [ʃizˈgɑd əә]</p><p>She’s gotta stop doing that.</p><p>http://engl.io/a6k</p><p>219</p><p>it</p><p>it has got to = it’s gotta [ɪtsˈgɑd əә]</p><p>It’s gotta be tough.</p><p>Mary</p><p>Mary has got to = Mary’s gotta [ˈmεəәɹ izˈgɑd əә]</p><p>Mary’s gotta leave.</p><p>we</p><p>we have got to = we’ve gotta [wivˈgɑd əә] or we gotta [wiˈgɑd əә]</p><p>We’ve gotta do this more often.</p><p>they</p><p>they have got to = they’ve gotta [ðeɪvˈgɑd əә] or they gotta [ðeɪˈgɑd əә]</p><p>They gotta work late.</p><p>the dogs</p><p>the dogs have got to = the dogs’ve gotta [ðəә dɔgz‿əәvˈgɑd əә]</p><p>The dogs’ve gotta be quiet.</p><p>Video 12.8 — Thanksgiving 2011</p><p>See gotta in real life English conversation as we cook</p><p>Thanksgiving dinner! engl.io/a6m</p><p>Video 12.9 — How to Pronounce GONNA and GOTTA</p><p>In this real life English video, you’ll see gonna and gotta in</p><p>real English conversation, and learn many other points,</p><p>while getting hungry for Ramen noodles!</p><p>engl.io/a6p</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 12.3 — Gotta.</p><p>You’ll hear sentence fragments both ways, with the have/has contraction, and</p><p>without. Remember, both are common in American English. You’ll hear each</p><p>fragment three times, the second time in slow motion. Then you’ll hear a sample</p><p>sentence.</p><p>http://engl.io/a6m</p><p>http://engl.io/a6p</p><p>220</p><p>Audio 12.3 — Gotta</p><p>I gotta / I’ve gotta</p><p>I’ve gotta go.</p><p>you gotta / you’ve gotta</p><p>You’ve gotta see this.</p><p>He’s gotta — remember you can’t drop the ‘has’</p><p>contraction</p><p>He’s gotta know that.</p><p>we gotta / we’ve gotta</p><p>We’ve gotta do this more often.</p><p>they gotta / they’ve gotta</p><p>They gotta work late.</p><p>engl.io/a6s</p><p>Test yourself: Non-Audio 12.1 — Used Correctly?</p><p>Which sentences do not use gonna/wanna/gotta correctly? Answers in the</p><p>Answers Appendix.</p><p>I wanna see her later</p><p>They’ve gotta see it.</p><p>He wanna win.</p><p>We’re gonna get it.</p><p>He’s gonna stop by?</p><p>We gotta go.</p><p>She gotta know that.</p><p>A Note on Speaking and Writing</p><p>As you’ve heard, even President Obama would use a reduction like ‘wanna’ in an</p><p>important speech. But would he ever use it in an important piece of writing?</p><p>Absolutely not. While it is absolutely a part of our culture to use these reductions</p><p>in speech, it is not acceptable to use them in any kind of formal writing. It has</p><p>been used here only because it is a chapter about ‘gonna’, ‘wanna’, and ‘gotta’. I</p><p>recommend not using the written form ‘gonna’, ‘wanna’, or ‘gotta’ in any writing.</p><p>http://engl.io/a6s</p><p>221</p><p>Chapter 13</p><p>Putting it All Together</p><p>If you’ve come this far, you know a lot about pronunciation! Now it’s time to start</p><p>putting it all together with some concrete training that will improve your listening</p><p>comprehension and pronunciation.</p><p>Bridging the gap between study and conversation with natives can be difficult.</p><p>Set aside time for regular pronunciation practice, and make sure you’re doing a</p><p>variety of exercises.</p><p>Now we’ll take everything we learned and apply it to sentences and</p><p>conversations. Make sure you think about rhythm and how to simplify the</p><p>unimportant words.</p><p>We’ll do several Ben Franklin Exercises together. This is an exercise I</p><p>developed where you study in depth everything you hear: reductions, the most</p><p>stressed syllables, contractions, gonna/wanna/gotta, Flap or Stop T’s, and so on.</p><p>Identify what you really hear, not what you think you might hear based on the</p><p>words. When you study real conversation like this, you’ll get used to the</p><p>reductions Americans use quickly, and the linking and intonation of sentences.</p><p>222</p><p>Video 13.1 — Ben Franklin Exercise</p><p>Get familiar with Ben Franklin exercises and how you might</p><p>take notes on pronunciation. Topic: Breakfast. engl.io/a72</p><p>You’ve already heard some audio in slow motion in this book, in this section</p><p>you’ll hear a lot. Why all the slow motion? Changing the speed of the</p><p>conversation does a couple of things. First, it makes the intonation easier to</p><p>identify: the constant up and down of the voice. The voice is always changing</p><p>pitch, it’s not flat. Work on imitating the speech in slow motion, your voice will</p><p>feel like waves going up and down. When it’s time to speed it up, just do those</p><p>waves faster. Don’t switch back into ‘talking’, or you might loose that wonderful,</p><p>connected character.</p><p>Second, it makes it easier to identify the quality of unstressed words and</p><p>syllables. It’s clear that they’re quieter and have less energy in the voice.</p><p>Third, it’s always good to slow something down and really drill it until it feels</p><p>comfortable. Your body connects to it in a different way—and remember, your</p><p>accent isn’t just about your mind, it’s about engaging your body and retraining</p><p>your muscle memory.</p><p>There are two voices in this section: a female voice, Rachel, and a male voice,</p><p>Tom. This is helpful not only because both genders are represented, but also</p><p>because two different interpretations are given. You’ll see that in some cases,</p><p>Rachel and Tom have made different choices about thought groups, pacing, and</p><p>pronunciation. They are both always right … with English pronunciation, many</p><p>different choices can be made within the overall character of American English.</p><p>Topic 1: Directions</p><p>Sentence: Do you know where Penn Station is?</p><p>You find yourself looking for Penn Station in New York. You lost your map, but</p><p>don’t worry, there are hundreds of people walking by you every minute. All you</p><p>have to do is ask for help!</p><p>One of the most useful phrases in American English is ‘excuse me’. This is the</p><p>best phrase to use to get someone’s attention whom you don’t know. (If you</p><p>know the person, you’ll just say his or her name.)</p><p>http://engl.io/a72</p><p>223</p><p>Video 13.2 — Excuse Me</p><p>There are lots of uses for this phrase. See many of them in</p><p>real life situations. engl.io/a74</p><p>Here we need the help of a stranger, so we use ‘excuse me’ to get his or her</p><p>attention, then ask the question.</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.1 — Penn Station.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase 4 times: normal pace, slow motion, half slow motion, and</p><p>normal pace. You’ll hear the sequence twice, first in Rachel’s voice, then in</p><p>Tom’s. Don’t repeat yet, just listen.</p><p>Audio 13.1 — Penn Station</p><p>Excuse me, do you know where Penn Station is?</p><p>engl.io/a77</p><p>Study it:</p><p>1) What are your thought groups? There are two here: ‘excuse me’, and ‘do</p><p>you know where Penn Station is?’. We can easily hear a little break in</p><p>sound on the audio file for both the male and female speakers. All the other</p><p>words flow together. At the end of me, Rachel goes up in pitch, signaling</p><p>that she will say more. Tom goes down in pitch—both are ok.</p><p>2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound?</p><p>Excuse, know, Penn, and Station are the most stressed. If you listen to a</p><p>sentence but don’t understand everything, chances are the words that you</p><p>do understand are the stressed words, the most important in the sentence.</p><p>Hear how these four words are clearest.</p><p>They all have full engagement of</p><p>the voice. They are the longest and loudest.</p><p>3) What words are reduced? Tom doesn’t fully pronounce the first syllable of</p><p>excuse. This is a stressed word, how is that possible? He does make the</p><p>stressed syllable very clear. It’s not uncommon to hear this word as Tom</p><p>said it. Can you hear the difference in the way the Rachel and Tom</p><p>pronounced excuse? Do you: both of these words are very fast, but for this</p><p>sentence, neither Tom nor Rachel reduced them to have the schwa vowel.</p><p>They both have [u].</p><p>http://engl.io/a74</p><p>http://engl.io/a77</p><p>224</p><p>4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking? All</p><p>of the words in each of the two thought groups really glide together</p><p>smoothly. Notice we have a clear consonant to vowel link in Station is; it</p><p>sounds ‘station‿nis’.</p><p>5) What about the intonation of the phrase? As discussed, Rachel brings the</p><p>intonation up at the end of me, and Tom makes it go down. The intonation</p><p>for the second thought group, however, is very similar for both Tom and</p><p>Rachel. Know, the first stressed word, has the highest pitch. Then the pitch</p><p>falls, and both Penn and Station have a little curve up, then back down. Is</p><p>ends with a curve up in pitch because this is a yes/no question.</p><p>Here are some of these points notated on the text. Listen to the audio file</p><p>several times. What else do you hear?</p><p>Practice it:</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.2 — Penn Station Practice.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase broken up into sections, each played three times. Repeat</p><p>each time; try to match the intonation exactly. The first few times, just do this on</p><p>‘uh’. Practice the smooth connection and forward motion of the voice. Then put</p><p>the words in. The first time through the sentence will be slowed down a bit, then</p><p>it will be at regular pace. You’ll hear it this way once with Rachel’s voice and</p><p>once with Tom’s voice.</p><p>225</p><p>Audio 13.2 — Penn Station Practice</p><p>slower: Excuse me / do you know / where Penn Station is?</p><p>regular: Excuse me / do you know where Penn Station is? engl.io/a79</p><p>Sentence: Can you tell me where the closest subway stop is?</p><p>Now you know where you’re going, you just have to get started. If you need to</p><p>get someone’s attention before asking this question, remember to say ‘excuse</p><p>me’.</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.3 — Subway Stop.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase 4 times: normal pace, slow motion, half slow motion, and</p><p>normal pace. You’ll hear the sequence twice, first in a female voice, then male.</p><p>Don’t repeat yet, just listen.</p><p>Audio 13.3 — Subway Stop</p><p>Can you tell me where the closest subway stop is?</p><p>engl.io/a7c</p><p>Study it:</p><p>1) What are your thought groups? This sentence has just one. All of the</p><p>words flow together in one smooth line.</p><p>2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound? Tell,</p><p>close-, and sub- are the most stressed syllables. In the slower audio, they</p><p>sound exaggerated, don’t they? They are longer and clearer than the rest,</p><p>the voice is fully engaged.</p><p>3) What words are reduced? Can, a helping verb here (not the main verb), is</p><p>reduced just like you learned in Chapter 10. Tom’s version is much faster</p><p>than Rachel’s, but in both cases ‘can’ is pronounced [kəәn]. The is</p><p>pronounced [ðəә] because the next word begins with a consonant. The word</p><p>where is very fast.</p><p>4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking?</p><p>Rachel releases the T in closest, Tom does not. As you learned, Americans</p><p>often drop the T between two consonants, like in closest stop [ˈkloʊ</p><p>sɪs‿stɑp]. That means these two words can be linked together with the S</p><p>sound, as Tom did.</p><p>http://engl.io/a79</p><p>http://engl.io/a7c</p><p>226</p><p>5) What about the intonation of the phrase? Because this is a yes/no question,</p><p>the intonation went up at the end. The content word ‘tell’, which is the</p><p>closest to the start of the sentence, is the highest in pitch, while the rest of</p><p>the sentence tapers down before the curve up at the end.</p><p>Here are some of these points notated on the text. Listen to the audio file</p><p>several times. What else do you hear?</p><p>Practice it:</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.4 — Subway Stop Practice.</p><p>Just like with the Penn Station exercise, you’ll hear the phrase broken up into</p><p>sections, each played three times.</p><p>Audio 13.4 — Subway Stop Practice</p><p>slower: Can you tell me / where the closest / subway stop</p><p>is?</p><p>regular: Can you tell me where the closest / subway stop</p><p>is?</p><p>engl.io/a7f</p><p>Directions Dialog</p><p>This happened to me recently. David and I weren’t using a map and were trying</p><p>to find one of the major highways in a town we weren’t familiar with. When it</p><p>became obvious we needed help, we asked someone at a gas station.</p><p>http://engl.io/a7f</p><p>227</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.5 — Directions Dialog.</p><p>You’ll hear the dialog twice. Once at normal pace, and once in slow motion.</p><p>Rachel: Excuse me.</p><p>Gas Station Attendant: Yes?</p><p>Rachel: We’re looking for 94. Do you know where it is?</p><p>Gas Station Attendant: Yes. Keep going down this road, and at the next</p><p>intersection turn left. In a couple of miles you’ll see signs for it.</p><p>Rachel: Thank you so much!</p><p>Gas Station Attendant: No problem.</p><p>Audio 13.5 — Directions Dialog</p><p>engl.io/a7g</p><p>Now it’s up to you:</p><p>Just like we did above with the two sentences, write down the text on a piece of</p><p>paper, study the audio, and mark down what you hear. What syllables sound</p><p>stressed — the loudest, clearest, with the up-down shape of the voice? The first</p><p>time you listen, just put an up/down curve over these syllables. What words are</p><p>reduced? Maybe you can hardly hear them. Are there pauses as one speaker is</p><p>talking? What about the intonation of the phrase? Listen several times and mark</p><p>everything you notice. The better you know what you’re hearing, the better you’ll</p><p>be able to imitate it.</p><p>Things to look for:</p><p>• The two ‘yes’ phrases: the intonation goes up for the question and down for</p><p>the statement.</p><p>• The of reduction—it links the word before it and after it together.</p><p>• Stop T at the end of it in signs for it.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.6 — Directions Dialog Practice:</p><p>Now, try it yourself. You’ll hear the phrases, at regular pace, broken up into</p><p>smaller fragments. You’ll hear each fragment three times, repeat each time.</p><p>Audio 13.6 — Directions Dialog Practice</p><p>engl.io/a7k</p><p>http://engl.io/a7g</p><p>http://engl.io/a7k</p><p>228</p><p>Topic 2: At a Restaurant</p><p>Sentence: Hi, I have a reservation for two under ‘Smith’.</p><p>This is what you might first say to the host or hostess at a restaurant. You’ve</p><p>made the reservation several days ago, and so you need to let the staff know</p><p>who you are and that you’ve arrived.</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.7 — Reservations.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase 4 times: normal pace, slow motion, half slow motion, and</p><p>normal pace. You’ll hear the sequence twice, first in a female voice, then male.</p><p>Don’t repeat yet, just listen.</p><p>Audio 13.7 — Reservations</p><p>Hi, I have a reservation for two under ‘Smith’.</p><p>engl.io/a7m</p><p>Study it:</p><p>1) What are your thought groups? There are two. First Hi, then I have a</p><p>reservation for two under ‘Smith’. Notice that Rachel goes right through the</p><p>comma that separates the two thought groups with no pause. Tom, on the</p><p>other hand, puts a noticeable pause between thought groups.</p><p>2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound? Hi,</p><p>two, and Smith are the longest and clearest words. Two and Smith are all I</p><p>would need to say to communicate what I mean. The stressed syllable of</p><p>reservation, -va-, is also stressed.</p><p>3) What words are reduced? For is clearly reduced, just like you learned in</p><p>Chapter 10. The vowel has changed to the schwa and the word is very fast,</p><p>even in slow motion. It is quiet and low in pitch.</p><p>4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking?</p><p>There are a couple of sounds and sound combinations that can be difficult</p><p>here. The SM cluster in Smith, for example. Make sure you make that with</p><p>no vowel in front,</p><p>the word under should link right into it. Also, the TH sound</p><p>that ends Smith. Make sure the tongue is through the teeth with air lightly</p><p>releasing, no pressure. As you work on these examples and any others,</p><p>keep your own problem sounds in mind. You might have to drill those words</p><p>separately before working on a whole phrase.</p><p>http://engl.io/a7m</p><p>229</p><p>5) What about the intonation of the phrase? The highest pitch is the stressed</p><p>syllable of reservation. Both two and Smith got quite a bit of attention—they</p><p>were longer and rounded (the curve down is very clear), stressed shape to</p><p>the pitch. This shape is clear in the slow motion sentences. This is</p><p>especially true for Tom’s sentence. The pitch ends going down because this</p><p>is a statement.</p><p>Here are some of these points notated on the text. Listen to the audio file</p><p>several times. What else do you hear?</p><p>Practice it:</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.8 — Reservations Practice.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase broken up into sections, each played three times. Repeat</p><p>each time; try to match the intonation exactly. The first few times, just do this on</p><p>‘uh’. Then put the words in. The first time through the sentence will be slowed</p><p>down a bit, then it will be at regular pace. Then you’ll hear it broken up again the</p><p>same way with the male voice.</p><p>Audio 13.8 — Reservations Practice</p><p>slower: Hi, I have a reservation / for two / under ‘Smith’.</p><p>regular: Hi, I have a reservation for two / under ‘Smith’. engl.io/a7p</p><p>http://engl.io/a7p</p><p>230</p><p>Sentence: How long is the wait for a party of four?</p><p>This time, you didn’t make a reservation. The restaurant looks crowded, and</p><p>you’re not sure there is room for you and your three friends. Here, the word</p><p>‘party’ means group. It does not mean you are celebrating, throwing a party, or</p><p>going to a party.</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.9 — Wait Time.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase 4 times: normal pace, slow motion, half slow motion, and</p><p>normal pace. You’ll hear the sequence twice, first in a female voice, then male.</p><p>Don’t repeat yet, just listen.</p><p>Audio 13.9 — Wait Time</p><p>How long is the wait for a party of four?</p><p>engl.io/a7s</p><p>Study it:</p><p>1) What are your thought groups? There is just one thought group.</p><p>2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound? Wait</p><p>and four are the most stressed, but the stressed syllable of party, par-, is</p><p>also clear and with an up/down shape of a stressed syllable. They are</p><p>longer, clearer, the ‘biggest’ or most obvious words.</p><p>3) What words are reduced? The word for is reduced. It’s interesting in this</p><p>sentence in particular because we also have the word four, which is</p><p>stressed. Some people want to fully pronounce for so it sounds like four, but</p><p>in this sentence they are clearly different because for is reduced.</p><p>The word of is also reduced to just the schwa [əә] sound. So, party of</p><p>sounds like ‘party-uh’. This helps link party and four smoothly.</p><p>4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking? I</p><p>notice a clear Stop T at the end of the stressed word wait. This is because</p><p>the next word begins with a consonant, [f]. Because the T is not fully</p><p>pronounced, it allows the speaker to move into the next sound more quickly,</p><p>making a smoother sentence. Instead of a released burst of air, there is just</p><p>a small pause or lift in the vocal line.</p><p>There is a Flap T in party because the T comes after an R and before a</p><p>vowel. Just flapping the tongue instead of making a fully released T makes</p><p>the line smoother.</p><p>http://engl.io/a7s</p><p>231</p><p>5) What about the intonation of the phrase? This is a question, but it can’t be</p><p>answered by ‘yes’ or ‘no’. So the intonation goes down at the end. The</p><p>stressed word wait is higher in pitch than the stressed word four, which is at</p><p>the end of the sentence. The general direction if pitch is down across the</p><p>whole sentence.</p><p>Here are some of these points notated on the text. Listen to the audio file</p><p>several times. What else do you hear?</p><p>Practice it:</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.10 — Wait Time Practice.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase broken up into sections, each played three times. Repeat</p><p>each time; try to match the intonation exactly. The first few times, just do this on</p><p>‘uh’. Then put the words in. The first time through the sentence will be slowed</p><p>down a bit, then it will be at regular pace. Then you’ll hear it broken up again the</p><p>same way with the male voice.</p><p>Audio 13.10 — Wait Time Practice</p><p>slower: How long is the wait / for a party of four?</p><p>regular: How long is the wait / for a party of four? engl.io/a7v</p><p>http://engl.io/a7v</p><p>232</p><p>At a Restaurant Dialog</p><p>Here Rachel and her friend Dawn are at a restaurant. The server Mark is taking</p><p>the order.</p><p>Someone asked me a question recently: why do servers tell their names, and</p><p>what are you supposed to say in response? Are you to introduce yourself to</p><p>them, too? The answer is no. You don’t need to introduce yourself when servers</p><p>introduce themselves. This is something that some servers do to be more</p><p>friendly and professional. When a server tells you his or her name, it will often be</p><p>followed by something like “And I’ll be your server today.” You can respond with</p><p>“thank you”.</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.11 — At a Restaurant Dialog. You’ll hear the dialog twice.</p><p>Once at normal pace, and once in slow motion.</p><p>Rachel: We’re going to start with the cheese plate.</p><p>Mark: Great.</p><p>Rachel: And I would like the mushroom pasta.</p><p>Mark: Wonderful.</p><p>Dawn: I’ll have the steak, medium.</p><p>Mark: And what two vegetables would you like with that?</p><p>Dawn: Um, potatoes and carrots.</p><p>Mark: Great. I’ll put this order in right away, and my name’s Mark if you need</p><p>anything.</p><p>Rachel: Great, thank you.</p><p>Audio 13.11 — At a Restaurant Dialog</p><p>engl.io/a7x</p><p>Now it’s up to you:</p><p>Just like we did above with the two sentences, write down the text on a piece of</p><p>paper, study the audio, and mark down what you hear. What syllables sound</p><p>stressed — the loudest, clearest, with the up-down shape of the voice? The first</p><p>time you listen, just put an up/down curve over these syllables. What words are</p><p>reduced? Maybe you can hardly hear them. Are there pauses as one speaker is</p><p>talking? What about the intonation of the phrase? Listen several times and mark</p><p>everything you notice. The better you know what you’re hearing, the better you’ll</p><p>be able to imitate it.</p><p>http://engl.io/a7x</p><p>233</p><p>Things to look for:</p><p>• Lots of Stop T’s here. How does great, with a Stop T, sound different than the</p><p>word gray would?</p><p>• The pause separating the thought groups I’ll have the steak and medium. (This</p><p>is how she wants it cooked. You can get meat prepared rare, which is the least</p><p>cooked, medium, and well-done.)</p><p>• And reductions, at the beginning of a sentence and in the middle.</p><p>• Contractions.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.12 — At a Restaurant Dialog Practice.</p><p>Now, try it yourself. You’ll hear the phrases, at regular pace, broken up into</p><p>small fragments. You’ll hear each fragment three times, repeat each time.</p><p>Audio 13.12 — At a Restaurant Dialog Practice</p><p>engl.io/a82</p><p>Topic 3: Shopping</p><p>Sentence: Excuse me, do you have this in another size?</p><p>You’re trying something on—shoes, jeans—and the size isn’t right. You’ve</p><p>looked at the others and don’t see your size. This can also apply to other objects</p><p>as well, for example, a small bowl that you like, but you need a larger bowl. You</p><p>can insert that into the question:</p><p>Excuse me, do you have this in a smaller size?</p><p>Excuse me, do you have this in a larger size?</p><p>Excuse me, do you have this in a size 4?</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.13 — Another Size.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase 4 times: normal pace, slow motion, half slow motion, and</p><p>normal pace. You’ll hear the sequence twice, first in a female voice, then male.</p><p>Don’t repeat yet, just listen.</p><p>Audio 13.13 — Another Size</p><p>Excuse me, do you have this in another size?</p><p>engl.io/a84</p><p>http://engl.io/a82</p><p>http://engl.io/a84</p><p>234</p><p>Study it:</p><p>1) What are your thought</p><p>groups? Just like in the Penn Station sentence, we</p><p>have Excuse me as a thought group separated from the rest of the</p><p>sentence.</p><p>2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound?</p><p>Excuse, have, and size have the longest syllables. They have the up-down</p><p>shape of a stressed syllable and are the clearest parts of the sentence.</p><p>3) What words are reduced? Especially in the slow motion version, it sounds</p><p>like do and you are both reduced, not a whole [u] vowel, but something more</p><p>like the schwa [əә]. Try this—rush through ‘do you’ and get to the verb: do</p><p>you have, do you know, do you need. Have is not reduced here, as it</p><p>sometimes is with a dropped H.</p><p>4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking? In</p><p>another links together with an ending consonant and beginning vowel.</p><p>Those words together are very quick, and almost have a bouncy feel. The</p><p>tongue is doing a lot of work here, against the roof of the mouth for the two</p><p>N sounds, while the tip comes through for the TH, but it’s always relaxed.</p><p>Practice this and other difficult passages slowly.</p><p>5) What about the intonation of the phrase? Rachel’s voice goes up at the end</p><p>of Excuse me, and Tom’s does not. Both are ok. When the voice goes up</p><p>in pitch at the end, it’s a signal that the speaker is going to say more. This is</p><p>a yes / no question, so the pitch will go up at the end of do you have this in</p><p>another size. Tom’s upward intonation is very clear.</p><p>Here are some of these points notated on the text. Listen to the audio file</p><p>several times. What else do you hear?</p><p>235</p><p>Practice it:</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.14 — Another Size Practice.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase broken up into sections, each played three times. Repeat</p><p>each time; try to match the intonation exactly. The first few times, just do this on</p><p>‘uh’. Then put the words in. The first time through the sentence will be slowed</p><p>down a bit, then it will be at regular pace. Then you’ll hear it broken up again the</p><p>same way with the male voice.</p><p>Audio 13.14 — Another Size Practice</p><p>slower: Excuse me / do you have this / in another size?</p><p>normal: Excuse me / do you have this / in another size? engl.io/a85</p><p>Sentence: What’s your return policy?</p><p>Once when I was shopping for a dress in Europe, I asked what the exchange</p><p>policy was, and they told me there wasn’t one. I had to keep what I bought! This</p><p>is quite unusual in America. You can take almost anything back to the store</p><p>within a given amount of time as long as you haven’t used it. Different stores</p><p>have different policies, 14 days, 30 days, or 90 days, for example.</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.15 — Return Policy.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase 4 times: normal pace, slow motion, half slow motion, and</p><p>normal pace. You’ll hear the sequence twice, first in a female voice, then male.</p><p>Don’t repeat yet, just listen.</p><p>Audio 13.15 — Return Policy</p><p>What’s your return policy?</p><p>engl.io/a88</p><p>Study it:</p><p>1) What are your thought groups? Just one in this sentence.</p><p>2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound?</p><p>What’s and return have the clearest stressed syllables. Policy is also</p><p>stressed, but since it is the last word in the sentence, the pitch isn’t as high,</p><p>and there is less energy in the voice.</p><p>3) What words are reduced? Your is clearly reduced, [jəәɹ]. It’s very fast. We</p><p>also have the contraction What’s, which reduces the word ‘is’.</p><p>http://engl.io/a85</p><p>http://engl.io/a88</p><p>236</p><p>4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking?</p><p>Some students have a hard time with the TS [ts] cluster like in What’s. It’s</p><p>very clear here, with a crisp sound.</p><p>5) What about the intonation of the phrase? This is a question, but it can’t be</p><p>answered with ‘yes’ or ‘no’, so it goes down in pitch, and the energy</p><p>diminishes towards the end like a statement.</p><p>Here are some of these points notated on the text. Listen to the audio file</p><p>several times. What else do you hear?</p><p>Practice it:</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.16 — Return Policy Practice.</p><p>Again, you’ll hear the phrase broken up into sections, each played three times.</p><p>Audio 13.16 — Return Policy Practice</p><p>slower: What’s your / return policy?</p><p>normal: What’s your / return policy? engl.io/a8a</p><p>http://engl.io/a8a</p><p>237</p><p>Shopping Dialog</p><p>You’ve just walked into a store, and one of the sales clerks walks over to you.</p><p>Since you’re not looking for anything in particular and you don’t need help with</p><p>anything, you say you’re just looking around.</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.17 — Shopping Dialog.</p><p>You’ll hear the dialog twice. Once at normal pace, and once in slow motion.</p><p>Sales Clerk: Can I help you?</p><p>You: I’m just looking around, thank you.</p><p>Sales Clerk: Let me know if you have any questions.</p><p>You: I will, thanks.</p><p>Audio 13.17 — Shopping Dialog</p><p>engl.io/a8b</p><p>Now it’s up to you:</p><p>Just like we did above with the two sentences, write down the text on a piece of</p><p>paper, study the audio, and mark down what you hear. What syllables sound</p><p>stressed — the loudest, clearest, with the up-down shape of the voice? The first</p><p>time you listen, just put an up/down curve over these syllables. What words are</p><p>reduced? Maybe you can hardly hear them. Are there pauses as one speaker is</p><p>talking? What about the intonation of the phrase? Listen several times and mark</p><p>everything you notice. The better you know what you’re hearing, the better you’ll</p><p>be able to imitate it.</p><p>Things to look for:</p><p>• Can reduction</p><p>• Intonation of the first question: does it go up or down?</p><p>• I’m contraction: saying I’m instead of I am helps smooth out the sentence</p><p>• Stop T in let me.</p><p>• Thought groups: are there pauses in the audio where you see commas in</p><p>the text?</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.18 — Shopping Dialog Practice.</p><p>Now, try it yourself. You’ll hear the phrases, at regular pace, broken up into</p><p>small fragments. You’ll hear each fragment three times, repeat each time.</p><p>http://engl.io/a8b</p><p>238</p><p>Audio 13.18 — Shopping Dialog Practice</p><p>engl.io/a8d</p><p>Topic 4: At Work</p><p>Sentence: The meeting’s been moved to three.</p><p>You’re all ready for a meeting at 11am when a colleague comes to tell you the</p><p>meeting will now be at 3pm. Good—that gives you extra time to prepare!</p><p>We have a contraction in this sentence. As you know, ’s can be the contraction</p><p>of two different words in this context. Which one is it:</p><p>The meeting is been moved to three.</p><p>The meeting has been moved to three.</p><p>The answer is ‘has’ — this is called the present perfect (has + been). The other</p><p>sentence is grammatically incorrect.</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.19 — Meeting Moved.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase 4 times: normal pace, slow motion, half slow motion, and</p><p>normal pace. You’ll hear the sequence twice, first in a female voice, then male.</p><p>Don’t repeat yet, just listen.</p><p>Audio 13.19 — Meeting Moved</p><p>The meeting’s been moved to three.</p><p>engl.io/a8f</p><p>Study it:</p><p>1) What are your thought groups? There is just one thought group.</p><p>2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound?</p><p>Meeting’s, moved, and three are the words with the clearest syllables.</p><p>Three, though it has a stressed length, is a little weaker sounding because it</p><p>is at the end of the sentence, when there is less energy in the voice.</p><p>3) What words are reduced? The word to is reduced. Rachel makes a</p><p>stronger True T sound, while Tom makes a more reduced Flap T sound.</p><p>http://engl.io/a8d</p><p>http://engl.io/a8f</p><p>239</p><p>Both reduce the vowel to the schwa [əә]. This means the word can be very</p><p>quick, giving nice contrast to the longer, stressed syllables.</p><p>4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking?</p><p>Rachel releases the D of moved, then makes the T sound of to. Tom</p><p>combines this into one D sound for a smoother line. The T in meeting’s is a</p><p>Flap T.</p><p>5) What about the intonation of the phrase? This is a statement, and the pitch</p><p>has a general movement downward throughout the phrase, with little curves</p><p>up and down for the stressed syllables.</p><p>Here are some of these points notated on the text. Listen to the audio file</p><p>several times. What else do you hear?</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.20 — Stressed Words and Sentence Position.</p><p>We’ve already talked about this a lot, but now let’s hear it. We’ll take the opening</p><p>words, including a stressed word, The meeting’s. Then we’ll take the last</p><p>stressed word, three. Even though they are both stressed, you can clearly hear</p><p>that the words at the beginning of the sentence is louder, higher in pitch, and has</p><p>more energy in the voice. The last word, though it’s quieter and has less energy</p><p>in the voice, is still quite clear. You’ll hear these two words next to each other</p><p>eight times. As you work on this and any sentence, try to make your final words</p><p>like this one. This will give your sentences the right shape—coming down in</p><p>pitch and energy over a statement.</p><p>240</p><p>Audio 13.20 — Stressed Words and Sentence Position</p><p>The meeting’s / three.</p><p>engl.io/a8g</p><p>Practice it:</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.21 — Meeting Moved Practice.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase broken up into sections, each played three times. Repeat</p><p>each time; try to match the intonation exactly. The first few times, just do this on</p><p>‘uh’. Then put the words in. The first time through the sentence will be slowed</p><p>down a bit, then it will be at regular pace. Then you’ll hear it broken up again the</p><p>same way with the male voice.</p><p>Audio 13.21 — Meeting Moved Practice</p><p>slower: The meeting’s been moved / to three.</p><p>regular: The meeting’s been moved / to three. engl.io/a8i</p><p>Sentence: Have you seen a draft of the report?</p><p>You’re working hard on a project with a colleague, and you’re waiting for a report</p><p>from another department to move forward with your project. You’ve heard a draft</p><p>of the report is ready, but you haven’t seen it yet. You ask if your colleague has.</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.22 — Report.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase 4 times: normal pace, slow motion, half slow motion, and</p><p>normal pace. You’ll hear the sequence twice, first in a female voice, then male.</p><p>Don’t repeat yet, just listen.</p><p>Audio 13.22 — Report</p><p>Have you seen a draft of the report?</p><p>engl.io/a8k</p><p>Study it:</p><p>1) What are your thought groups? There is just one.</p><p>2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound? Draft</p><p>and report stick out as the longest words (for report, it’s just the stressed</p><p>syllable that is long). This is especially true in Tom’s sentence, in which the</p><p>other words are faster.</p><p>http://engl.io/a8g</p><p>http://engl.io/a8i</p><p>http://engl.io/a8k</p><p>241</p><p>3) What words are reduced? Tom reduces of by dropping the V sound, but</p><p>Rachel makes a quick V. Little differences like this add up to Tom’s</p><p>sentence being faster. Tom also reduced you to [jəә].</p><p>4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking? By</p><p>dropping the V in of, Tom is able to link of and the a little quicker than</p><p>Rachel. However, because there is no break between the two words in</p><p>Rachel’s sentence, it still sounds smooth and American!</p><p>5) What about the intonation of the phrase? This is a question that can be</p><p>answered by ‘yes’ or ‘no’. This means the intonation should go up at the</p><p>end, just as it does. Notice the rising pitch on -port.</p><p>Here are some of these points notated on the text. Listen to the audio file</p><p>several times. What else do you hear?</p><p>Practice it:</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.23 — Report Practice.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase broken up into sections, each played three times. Repeat</p><p>each time; try to match the intonation exactly. The first few times, just do this on</p><p>‘uh’. Then put the words in. The first time through the sentence will be slowed</p><p>down a bit, then it will be at regular pace. Then you’ll hear it broken up again the</p><p>same way with the male voice.</p><p>Audio 13.23 — Report Practice</p><p>slower: Have you seen a draft / of the report?</p><p>regular: Have you seen a draft / of the report? engl.io/a8m</p><p>http://engl.io/a8m</p><p>242</p><p>At Work Dialog</p><p>John and Kim are chatting while in line at the company cafeteria about a project</p><p>that John is working on.</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.24 — At Work Dialog.</p><p>You’ll hear the dialog twice. Once at normal pace, and once in slow motion.</p><p>Kim: How’s the project going?</p><p>John: Slowly moving along. The client keeps changing his mind.</p><p>Kim: Oh, that’s frustrating!</p><p>John: Yeah, it is. But next week we’re going on vacation so I’m going to try to</p><p>forget all about it!</p><p>Kim: Nice!</p><p>Audio 13.24 — At Work Dialog</p><p>engl.io/a8p</p><p>Now it’s up to you:</p><p>Just like we did above with the two sentences, write down the text on a piece of</p><p>paper, study the audio, and mark down what you hear. What syllables sound</p><p>stressed — the loudest, clearest, with the up-down shape of the voice? The first</p><p>time you listen, just put an up/down curve over these syllables. What words are</p><p>reduced? Maybe you can hardly hear them. Are there pauses as one speaker is</p><p>talking? What about the intonation of the phrase? Listen several times and mark</p><p>everything you notice. The better you know what you’re hearing, the better you’ll</p><p>be able to imitate it.</p><p>Things to look for:</p><p>• Contractions</p><p>• Dropping the H reduction in his.</p><p>• Going to = gonna reduction.</p><p>• Intonation: the opening question isn’t a yes/no question, so the pitch goes</p><p>down at the end.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.25 — At Work Dialog Practice:</p><p>Now, try it yourself. You’ll hear the phrases, at regular pace, broken up into</p><p>small fragments. You’ll hear each fragment three times, repeat each time.</p><p>http://engl.io/a8p</p><p>243</p><p>Audio 13.25 — At Work Dialog Practice</p><p>engl.io/a8r</p><p>Topic 5: Making Plans</p><p>Sentence: Do you want to do something tomorrow night?</p><p>You’re free tomorrow night and want to do something social. You ask a friend if</p><p>she wants to hang out.</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.26 — Tomorrow Night.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase 4 times: normal pace, slow motion, half slow motion, and</p><p>normal pace. You’ll hear the sequence twice, first in a female voice, then male.</p><p>Don’t repeat yet, just listen.</p><p>Audio 13.26 — Tomorrow Night</p><p>Do you want to do something tomorrow night?</p><p>engl.io/a8s</p><p>Study it:</p><p>1) What are your thought groups? There’s just one thought group in this</p><p>sentence.</p><p>2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound? Do</p><p>and night are the most clear and stressed, but the stressed syllables of the</p><p>want to reduction and tomorrow are also stressed.</p><p>3) What words are reduced? We have a great want to reduction: ‘wanna’.</p><p>4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking? The</p><p>first syllable of tomorrow is so short, there is almost no vowel in it. This is</p><p>especially clear in Rachel’s slow motion sentence.</p><p>5) What about the intonation of the phrase? This is a question that can be</p><p>answered with ‘yes’ or ‘no’, so the intonation goes up in pitch at the end.</p><p>Here are some of these points notated on the text. Listen to the audio file</p><p>several times. What else do you hear?</p><p>http://engl.io/a8r</p><p>http://engl.io/a8s</p><p>244</p><p>Practice it:</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.27 — Tomorrow Night Practice.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase broken up into sections, each played three times. Repeat</p><p>each time; try to match the intonation exactly. The first few times, just do this on</p><p>‘uh’. Then put the words in. The first time through the sentence will be slowed</p><p>down a bit, then it will be at regular pace. Then you’ll hear it broken up again the</p><p>same way with the male voice.</p><p>Audio 13.27 — Tomorrow Night Practice</p><p>slower: Do you want to / do something / tomorrow night?</p><p>normal: Do you want to / do something / tomorrow night? engl.io/a8v</p><p>Sentence: I’d love to.</p><p>This is one possible response to the question you just asked. Your friend is free,</p><p>and she’d really like to do something with you!</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.28 — Love To.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase 4 times: normal pace, slow motion, half slow motion, and</p><p>normal pace. You’ll hear the sequence twice, first in a female voice, then male.</p><p>Don’t repeat</p><p>yet, just listen.</p><p>http://engl.io/a8v</p><p>245</p><p>Audio 13.28 — Love To</p><p>I’d love to.</p><p>engl.io/a8y</p><p>Study it:</p><p>1) What are your thought groups? There is just one thought group in this</p><p>sentence.</p><p>2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound? Love</p><p>is the only stressed syllable in this sentence. Since the sentence is so short,</p><p>we can really see how the unstressed word I’d leads up to the stressed</p><p>word, and the unstressed word to falls away from the stressed word. They</p><p>are all a part of the same smooth line, a curve up and a curve down.</p><p>3) What words are reduced? We have the contraction I’d, which is a reduction</p><p>of ‘I would.’ What about to? This word normally reduces, but here we can</p><p>still hear the OO [u] vowel. Why doesn’t it reduce to the schwa? Because</p><p>it’s the last word in the sentence. Most people won’t reduce words in this</p><p>situation, but it’s still unstressed.</p><p>4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking? Love</p><p>has the letter “O”, but it makes an UH [ʌ] sound!</p><p>5) What about the intonation of the phrase? This is a statement, so the pitch</p><p>goes down at the end.</p><p>Here are some of these points notated on the text. Listen to the audio file</p><p>several times. What else do you hear?</p><p>Practice it:</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.29 — Love To Practice.</p><p>This sentence is too short to break up. You’ll hear the full sentence, three times.</p><p>The first few times, just do this on ‘uh’. Then put the words in. The first time</p><p>http://engl.io/a8y</p><p>246</p><p>through the sentence will be slowed down a bit, then it will be at regular pace.</p><p>Then you’ll hear it broken up again the same way with the male voice.</p><p>Audio 13.29 — Love To Practice</p><p>I’d love to.</p><p>engl.io/a92</p><p>Sentence: I can’t, we’ll be out of town.</p><p>This is another possible answer to the question you asked. Unfortunately, your</p><p>friend is unavailable to hang out tomorrow night.</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.30 — Out of Town.</p><p>You’ll hear the phrase 4 times: normal pace, slow motion, half slow motion, and</p><p>normal pace. You’ll hear the sequence twice, first in a female voice, then male.</p><p>Don’t repeat yet, just listen.</p><p>Audio 13.30 — Out of Town</p><p>I can’t, we’ll be out of town.</p><p>engl.io/a93</p><p>Study it:</p><p>1) What are your thought groups? There are two, I can’t and we’ll be out of</p><p>town.</p><p>2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound? In the</p><p>first thought group, can’t is stressed. In the second, out and town have the most</p><p>shape and and are longer.</p><p>3) What words are reduced? Of is reduced simply to the schwa sound. It helps</p><p>link the words out and town together. Also, the contraction we’ll is not</p><p>pronounced with the [i] vowel, but something more like the schwa [əә]. It’s very</p><p>fast.</p><p>4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking? The</p><p>word can’t ends with an abrupt stop, the T isn’t released in Rachel’s sentence.</p><p>However, Tom does release the T in can’t.</p><p>5) What about the intonation of the phrase? This is a statement, and the pitch</p><p>heads downward throughout the phrase.</p><p>http://engl.io/a92</p><p>http://engl.io/a93</p><p>247</p><p>Here are some of these points notated on the text. Listen to the audio file</p><p>several times. What else do you hear?</p><p>Practice it:</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.31 — Out of Town Practice. You’ll hear the</p><p>phrase broken up into sections, each played three times. Repeat each time; try</p><p>to match the intonation exactly. The first few times, just do this on ‘uh’. Then put</p><p>the words in. The first time through the sentence will be slowed down a bit, then</p><p>it will be at regular pace. Then you’ll hear it broken up again the same way with</p><p>the male voice.</p><p>Audio 13.31 — Out of Town Practice</p><p>slower: I can’t / we’ll be / out of town.</p><p>normal: I can’t / we’ll be out of town. engl.io/a95</p><p>Making Plans Dialog</p><p>Zack will be visiting Brooklyn for the weekend and hopes to see his friends Ray</p><p>and Maria. They have a toddler named Charlie whose bedtime routine they don’t</p><p>want to interrupt.</p><p>Listen: Audio 13.32 — Making Plans Dialog. You’ll hear the dialog twice.</p><p>Once at normal pace, and once in slow motion.</p><p>Zack: Anna and I will be in town next weekend. Do you guys want to try to get</p><p>together?</p><p>http://engl.io/a95</p><p>248</p><p>Maria: Yeah, we’d love to. Do you want to come over for an early dinner on</p><p>Saturday?</p><p>Zack: Sure.</p><p>Maria: We usually start putting Charlie to bed around 7.</p><p>Zack: Ok, no problem. We’ll be out of your hair by then.</p><p>Maria: Great.</p><p>Audio 13.32 — Making Plans Dialog</p><p>engl.io/a98</p><p>Now it’s up to you:</p><p>Just like we did above with the three sentences, write down the text on a piece of</p><p>paper, study the audio, and mark down what you hear. What syllables sound</p><p>stressed — the loudest, clearest, with the up-down shape of the voice? The first</p><p>time you listen, just put an up/down curve over these syllables. What words are</p><p>reduced? Maybe you can hardly hear them. Are there pauses as one speaker is</p><p>talking? What about the intonation of the phrase? Listen several times and mark</p><p>everything you notice. The better you know what you’re hearing, the better you’ll</p><p>be able to imitate it.</p><p>Things to look for:</p><p>• Reductions: and, for, to, wanna, of.</p><p>• Stop T in great.</p><p>• Dropped D in around. This is common for around, especially when followed by</p><p>a word that starts with a consonant.</p><p>• Idiom out of your hair. Can you guess what this means?</p><p>• Linking out and of with a Flap T.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.33 — Making Plans Dialog Practice:</p><p>Now, try it yourself. You’ll hear the phrases, at regular pace, broken up into</p><p>small fragments. You’ll hear each fragment three times, repeat each time.</p><p>Audio 13.33 — Making Plans Dialog Practice</p><p>engl.io/a9a</p><p>http://engl.io/a98</p><p>http://engl.io/a9a</p><p>249</p><p>Video Exercises</p><p>Breaking down what you hear isn’t always easy. As you do more and more Ben</p><p>Franklin exercises, you’ll find you become a more active listener. Here are more</p><p>videos to practice with:</p><p>Video 13.3 — How to Sound like a Native Speaker</p><p>This video goes over a short Ben Franklin exercise, and an</p><p>imitation exercise as well. See more imitation exercises</p><p>below.</p><p>engl.io/a9c</p><p>Video 13.4 — Where I live</p><p>engl.io/a9d</p><p>Video 13.5 — What did you do today?</p><p>engl.io/a9f</p><p>Video 13.6 — Free Time</p><p>engl.io/a9h</p><p>Video 13.7 — Evening Plans</p><p>engl.io/a9k</p><p>Video 13.8 — Stressed</p><p>engl.io/a9m</p><p>Imitation Exercises</p><p>These exercises are for practicing the character of American English:</p><p>placement, linking, rhythm, and intonation. In fact, you don’t even need to use</p><p>words, you can just use ‘uh’ like we have several times in this book. These are</p><p>imitation exercises. You hear part of a phrase three times, then there’s time for</p><p>you to repeat. Practice just on ‘uh’, imitating the rhythm and melody of the line</p><p>you hear. After you’ve done the same exercise many times, if you feel confident,</p><p>try it with the words. Try doing this with your eyes closed, focusing on what you</p><p>hear.</p><p>http://engl.io/a9c</p><p>http://engl.io/a9d</p><p>http://engl.io/a9f</p><p>http://engl.io/a9h</p><p>http://engl.io/a9k</p><p>http://engl.io/a9m</p><p>250</p><p>Video 13.9 — Brooklyn Neighborhoods</p><p>engl.io/a9r</p><p>Video 13.10 — Don’t Keep a Secret</p><p>engl.io/a9s</p><p>Video 13.11 — I Shouldn’t be Bragging</p><p>engl.io/a9u</p><p>Video 13.12 — Pan Am</p><p>engl.io/a9x</p><p>Video 13.13 — What’s going on?</p><p>engl.io/a9z</p><p>Video 13.14 — Call Ignored</p><p>engl.io/a91</p><p>Video 13.15 — People Change</p><p>engl.io/1a2</p><p>Video 13.16 — Terminator</p><p>engl.io/1a4</p><p>Video 13.17 — Big Love</p><p>engl.io/1a5</p><p>Video 13.18 — Carousel</p><p>engl.io/1a8</p><p>http://engl.io/a9r</p><p>http://engl.io/a9s</p><p>http://engl.io/a9u</p><p>http://engl.io/a9x</p><p>http://engl.io/a9z</p><p>http://engl.io/a91</p><p>http://engl.io/1a2</p><p>http://engl.io/1a4</p><p>http://engl.io/1a5</p><p>http://engl.io/1a8</p><p>251</p><p>Video 13.19 — 500 Days of Summer</p><p>engl.io/1ab</p><p>Video 13.20 — The Art of Getting By</p><p>engl.io/1ad</p><p>Video 13.21 — Eavesdrop</p><p>engl.io/1af</p><p>Video 13.22 — Peggy’s New Office</p><p>engl.io/1ah</p><p>will be talked about a lot in this book.</p><p>Video 2.1 — English: A Stress-Timed Language</p><p>This video goes over the difference between a language</p><p>where every syllable is the same length and a language like</p><p>English where syllables are different lengths.</p><p>engl.io/ac2</p><p>Every time you learn a word, learn the stress. Keep lists of words with the same</p><p>stress, for example, a list of two-syllable words with stress on the first syllable, or</p><p>http://engl.io/ac2</p><p>17</p><p>a list of three-syllable words with stress on the middle syllable. Practice these</p><p>groups together.</p><p>Most dictionaries will use this symbol ˈ to mark a syllable with primary stress, and</p><p>this symbol ˌ to mark a syllable with secondary stress. All other syllables are</p><p>unstressed. Syllables with secondary stress ˌ are more like unstressed syllables</p><p>than stressed syllables — but we’ll talk more about that later.</p><p>Note: Along with [ˈ] and [ˌ], you might also see a third symbol between</p><p>syllables. Some dictionaries will put this symbol [·] before a syllable with</p><p>no stress that’s not at the beginning of a word, like this: [ˈbju·dɪ·fəәl].</p><p>Other dictionaries just leave a space, which is what you’ll see in this book:</p><p>[ˈbju dɪ fəәl].</p><p>Often when people talk about word stress, they talk about long or short syllables,</p><p>or rhythm. But we can’t talk about rhythm without also talking about intonation</p><p>and other vocal factors. They all go together. Intonation is the rise and fall of</p><p>the voice in speech, the pitch, which you’ll study more in later chapters.</p><p>Stressed Unstressed</p><p>symbol [ˈ] [ˌ] or no marking</p><p>length longer Shorter</p><p>intonation (or ‘pitch’ or</p><p>‘melody’)</p><p>Curve up, then down Flatter pitch, generally</p><p>lower than stressed</p><p>syllables</p><p>energy Full engagement of</p><p>voice, can be a little</p><p>louder</p><p>Less energy/air in the</p><p>voice (can sound crackly</p><p>at the end of a sentence)</p><p>In the text of this book ⃕ ·</p><p>On-screen text in videos DA Da</p><p>In many of my videos, I use the nonsense syllable ‘da’ for stress: DA is a</p><p>syllable with primary stress, Da is a syllable with secondary stress, and da</p><p>is an unstressed syllable.</p><p>18</p><p>Stressed syllables have a little curve up, then down in the voice. This is the</p><p>intonation of a stressed syllable. This shape, especially the curve down, defines</p><p>the stressed syllable and makes it sound really American.</p><p>Video 2.2 — Introduction to Word Stress</p><p>Study Stressed vs. Unstressed syllables as a general</p><p>concept. Here, I use Praat software. You can get your own</p><p>free copy here: www.praat.org.</p><p>engl.io/acb</p><p>Video 2.3 — The Shape of a Stressed Syllable</p><p>If you’re confused about the intonation of a stressed syllable,</p><p>the curve up then down in the voice, watch this video.</p><p>engl.io/ac4</p><p>What about unstressed syllables? They will generally be lower in pitch and really</p><p>fast, and will even feel like some of the energy of the voice is taken out. This can</p><p>make the sounds in an unstressed syllable less clear.</p><p>Watch this video on the word ‘download’. In it, I compare the syllable ‘-load’ in</p><p>‘download’, which is unstressed, to the syllable ‘load’, the verb, which is stressed.</p><p>Hear the difference in length, volume, and intonation. They don’t sound the</p><p>same, even though the sounds are the same!</p><p>Video 2.4 — How to Pronounce DOWNLOAD</p><p>Compare ‘load’ as an unstressed and stressed syllable.</p><p>engl.io/acf</p><p>Unstressed syllables should be so short that there’s no time to change pitch —</p><p>no time for a curve up, then down in the voice like for stressed syllables.</p><p>However, if you have a string of unstressed syllables in a row, the pitch may be</p><p>moving up towards a stressed syllable, or moving down, after a stressed syllable.</p><p>For example, in the phrase “It’s amazing”, we have 4 syllables, the third one is</p><p>stressed. So the pattern is da-da-DA-da:</p><p>· · ⃕ ·</p><p>It’s a·maz·ing</p><p>http://engl.io/acb</p><p>http://engl.io/ac4</p><p>http://engl.io/acf</p><p>19</p><p>Rather than thinking of the intonation, or shape of the line, like this:</p><p>Think of it like this, smoothly moving up towards the stressed syllable, then down:</p><p>Let’s use a simple context to study stressed vs. unstressed syllables: two-syllable</p><p>words.</p><p>Video 2.5 — Weddings and 2-Syllable Words</p><p>Study 2-syllable words by having them broken down for you.</p><p>engl.io/ac3</p><p>Video 2.6 — Wedding Venue: 2-Syllable Words</p><p>Study 2-syllable words by identifying yourself which syllable</p><p>is stressed.</p><p>engl.io/ace</p><p>Video 2.7 — Listening Comprehension: 2-Syllable Words</p><p>You’ll hear a 2-syllable word. Which stress does it have,</p><p>DA-da or da-DA?</p><p>engl.io/ac5</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 2.1 — Which Syllable is Stressed?</p><p>You’ll hear ten 2-syllable words. Write down the word and if stress is on the first</p><p>or second syllable. Does it sound like DA-da or da-DA? Answers in the Answers</p><p>Appendix.</p><p>Audio 2.1 — Which Syllable is Stressed?</p><p>Test your listening comprehension for stress.</p><p>engl.io/acg</p><p>http://engl.io/ac3</p><p>http://engl.io/ace</p><p>http://engl.io/ac5</p><p>http://engl.io/acg</p><p>20</p><p>Now it’s time for YOU to get comfortable putting the intonation, or melody—the</p><p>shape of the voice—and the rhythm together. To keep it simple, we’re not going</p><p>to add words yet. Don’t worry, that will come! But first make sure this feels</p><p>comfortable. How smooth can you make your line? How fast can you make your</p><p>short, unstressed syllables?</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 2.2 — Rhythmic Patterns.</p><p>First you’ll hear a rhythmic pattern just on the melody, on the vowel ‘uh’. Try to</p><p>imitate it just like you hear it, including a nice, relaxed placement. Think about</p><p>your neck and throat being relaxed so the resonance is low. Then you’ll hear the</p><p>same pattern as separate syllables on ‘da’. Does imitating the stress patterns</p><p>feel comfortable? Does your voice easily flow forward, without ever feeling</p><p>caught? If not, keep imitating and working, thinking of a low placement and nice,</p><p>easy, forward flow of the voice. If the D consonant is difficult for you, try using</p><p>‘m’ instead.</p><p>Audio 2.2 — Rhythmic Patterns</p><p>da-DA-da-DA-da</p><p>da-DA-da</p><p>da-DA</p><p>da-da-DA</p><p>DA-DA</p><p>da</p><p>da-DA-da-da-DA</p><p>da-DA-da</p><p>da-DA, DA-da</p><p>DA-da-da</p><p>da-DA-da-DA</p><p>da-da-DA</p><p>da-DA-DA</p><p>da-DA-DA-da-da</p><p>da-DA-da-DA-da</p><p>DA-da-DA</p><p>engl.io/ac6</p><p>http://engl.io/ac6</p><p>21</p><p>Common mistakes:</p><p>1. Making each syllable separate. The syllables should all flow into each</p><p>other. Forward flow and the linking together of sounds are very important</p><p>in American English. Make the D very light, just a quick flap of the</p><p>tongue, to allow this to happen. Think of the Path of the Voice video from</p><p>the last section, and of your air constantly streaming forward. Don’t stop it!</p><p>This is good practice for linking words together, which you’ll study in</p><p>Chapter 8.</p><p>2. Making syllables the same length. Chances are, you need to make</p><p>your unstressed syllables even shorter. Try it: how fast can you make it?</p><p>da, da, da.</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 2.3 — Identify the Rhythmic Pattern.</p><p>You’ll hear 10 different rhythmic patterns. Identify which pattern you’re hearing</p><p>on ‘da’, for example, da-DA. Write your answers down. You might need to listen</p><p>several times. Answers in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>Audio 2.3 — Identify the Rhythmic Pattern</p><p>engl.io/ac7</p><p>Now that you know about rhythm and intonation and how they relate to stressed</p><p>and unstressed syllables, we can start learning sounds. We’ll study each sound</p><p>as a stressed and unstressed syllable where possible.</p><p>Note: ACCENT and STRESS mean the same thing. A stressed syllable</p><p>is the same as an accented syllable, an unstressed syllable is the same</p><p>as an unaccented syllable.</p><p>http://engl.io/ac7</p><p>22</p><p>Chapter 3</p><p>Vowels</p><p>We’ve gotten to the point where we can put it all together—placement, rhythm,</p><p>and the sounds: vowels! Most people want to start with the vowels, but we’ve</p><p>laid an important foundation first. Build</p><p>Video 13.23 — Midnight in Paris</p><p>engl.io/1ak</p><p>Video 13.24 — Bored to Death</p><p>engl.io/1am</p><p>Video 13.25 — Let’s Do Lunch</p><p>engl.io/1ap</p><p>Video 13.26 — Thanksgiving 2012</p><p>engl.io/1as</p><p>Video 13.27 — What did you do today?</p><p>engl.io/1au</p><p>Video 13.28 — Is Tom Stressed?</p><p>engl.io/1aw</p><p>http://engl.io/1ab</p><p>http://engl.io/1ad</p><p>http://engl.io/1af</p><p>http://engl.io/1ah</p><p>http://engl.io/1ak</p><p>http://engl.io/1am</p><p>http://engl.io/1ap</p><p>http://engl.io/1as</p><p>http://engl.io/1au</p><p>http://engl.io/1aw</p><p>252</p><p>Video 13.29 — Is Rachel Stressed?</p><p>engl.io/1ax</p><p>http://engl.io/1ax</p><p>253</p><p>Chapter 14</p><p>Continuing to Work</p><p>In this book, you’ve built a foundation for the sounds of American English. You</p><p>know how to listen for stressed words and reduced words. You know what a</p><p>Stop T sounds like, and contractions. You know Americans use</p><p>gonna/wanna/gotta and reductions all the time. The more you pay attention to</p><p>these things as you watch TV or listen to a conversation, the more you’ll notice</p><p>them. This will build your intuition, and you’ll start to get a feel for what’s ‘right’.</p><p>But, because of what you’ve learned in this book, you don’t have to rely on</p><p>intuition. Until that gets stronger, you can study phrases and know how they</p><p>should sound: pick out the stressed words, identify contractions, look at words</p><p>that will link together with an ending consonant to beginning vowel, and so on.</p><p>You have all the tools you need to keep practicing. But what material should you</p><p>use to keep practicing?</p><p>Vocabulary Lists and Phrase Drilling</p><p>This sounds boring, but it doesn’t have to be! You might be working from a book</p><p>or website that gives you word lists. That’s a good base, but it’s easier to</p><p>remember words and phrases by picking them up in context. Read in English</p><p>and watch TV for vocabulary and useful phrases. Keep a list with you that you</p><p>add to when you find words, ways of using those words, or phrases that are new</p><p>to you. Write down the words or phrases and the context, and practice them out</p><p>loud.</p><p>254</p><p>Write out the IPA, or any other system that works for you, for each word and</p><p>phrase. Know where the stress is, and practice words just like in Chapter 9,</p><p>thinking about the shape of the stressed syllable and making the unstressed</p><p>syllables really fast. You might even want to practice stressed and unstressed</p><p>syllables separately. For the phrases, look for words you can reduce, and</p><p>practice them on their own. Then link them back into the phrase, just like in</p><p>Chapter 10. Notice everything, like contractions and ‘gonna’.</p><p>If any of the words or phrases are difficult, slow down. Don’t say them at a</p><p>normal speaking pace. Make sure you’re going slow enough so you know it’s</p><p>right. Practice the same word or phrase 10 times in a row, really paying attention</p><p>to what you hear and the movement of the mouth. Then a little faster 10 more</p><p>times.</p><p>Talk out loud as much as you can. It doesn’t matter if no one is listening.</p><p>Sometimes that’s even better because you don’t need to worry about making</p><p>mistakes. Pick a topic and talk about it as if someone was there. Record</p><p>yourself, then pick out some of the vocabulary you used and drill those words or</p><p>phrases.</p><p>If you live in the US, or have the opportunity to have conversation with native</p><p>speakers, record that conversation. Listen to it later. Are you happy with your</p><p>pronunciation? What would you do differently? Maybe it sounds choppy. Write</p><p>down what you said and practice it slowly, with a smooth connection between</p><p>words. Use your body: move your arms smoothly too. Slowly speed up … can</p><p>you keep a smooth connection?</p><p>Record yourself and listen to it everyday. Get familiar with how you talk, and</p><p>what you’d like to change about it. Doing this and a Ben Franklin exercise every</p><p>day will help you understand what you need to change about your accent, and</p><p>how to change it.</p><p>Ben Franklin Exercises</p><p>In the last chapter, you saw some videos where I did a Ben Franklin exercise for</p><p>you. Those videos are to show you how to do them on your own. They are</p><p>named after Benjamin Franklin because they use a method he came up with to</p><p>improve is own writing. Study an original, take good notes, try to reproduce it</p><p>yourself, compare with the original.</p><p>Take a short clip (audio or video) that you can listen to over and over. Luckily</p><p>there are lots of news, drama, comedy, and vlog clips on the internet. Just pick a</p><p>255</p><p>small section of it, 15 or 20 seconds. Write out or get a copy of the transcript,</p><p>and mark it with everything you hear: what syllables are most stressed? What</p><p>words reduce? Where are Flap T’s, Stop T’s, contractions, ‘gonna’? Does the</p><p>pitch go up at the end of a phrase? Listen over and over again.</p><p>Looking at your notes, practice speaking the text out loud, as slowly as you need.</p><p>Do each phrase over and over until it starts to feel more comfortable. Record</p><p>yourself and listen to it. Then listen to the original. How does it compare?</p><p>What do you still need to work on?</p><p>If you don’t know where to find good videos to practice with, try ted.com. They</p><p>have videos from many disciplines, and you can turn on the subtitles or work with</p><p>a clickable transcript. Plus, you’ll usually learn something cool.</p><p>There are some websites, like livemocha.com, where you can record yourself</p><p>and native speakers will comment on your recording, for free. I have actually</p><p>used it myself when studying a foreign language.</p><p>Daily Practice</p><p>Daily practice is the best way to move forward. Drill the same concept (the AH</p><p>vowel, or reducing ‘for’, for example) for a week or more. Once you make a</p><p>breakthrough on a word or sound and ‘get it’, it’s time to really work. Think of all</p><p>the times you’ve done it the wrong way. That’s your habit. To break the habit,</p><p>you have to practice the new way not once or twice, but many times. Try 20</p><p>times a day, at different paces (really slow, then normal speaking speed), for 7</p><p>days in a row.</p><p>Repetition and consistency are the most important factors to your practice. That</p><p>doesn’t mean you have to spend hours a day. I remember a student from many</p><p>years ago. He was working on the ending [n] sound. It always sounded like [ŋ]</p><p>because of tongue tension. The next week, every word I gave him with an</p><p>ending [n] sounded perfect—sounded native! I said, how much did you work on</p><p>this? He said, “Just 10 minutes a day, but I practiced every day.”</p><p>Be patient with yourself and work hard. With daily practice you can improve</p><p>dramatically.</p><p>Lessons and Evaluations</p><p>Rachel’s English offers one-time accent evaluations. This can be a great way to</p><p>learn what you need to work on, and how to do it. If you want a coach every step</p><p>of the way, then lessons, also offered by Rachel’s English, are a great option.</p><p>http://www.ted.com/</p><p>http://livemocha.com/</p><p>256</p><p>Currently, teacher Tom Kelley, who you’ve heard on the audio files in this book</p><p>and seen in some videos, offers both lessons and evaluations through Rachel’s</p><p>English. He has trained as a singer and professional actor, getting a Master’s</p><p>Degree in Acting from Harvard University. He is an exceptional accent coach</p><p>and has been working with Rachel’s English students since 2012.</p><p>Lessons and Evaluations</p><p>Learn more about Tom and the evaluations and lesson</p><p>packages available from Rachel’s English.</p><p>engl.io/lessons</p><p>Thank you for joining me on the pronunciation journey in this book. To keep in</p><p>touch with Rachel’s English, please sign up for the mailing list: engl.io/nl</p><p>I wish you the best as you continue to work on your spoken English! I hope</p><p>every one of you will achieve your goals!</p><p>http://engl.io/lessons</p><p>257</p><p>Appendix 1: Answers</p><p>Chapter 2 — Introduction to Stress</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 2.1 — Which Syllable is Stressed?</p><p>about — second syllable stress</p><p>window — first syllable stress</p><p>yellow — first syllable stress</p><p>until — second syllable stress</p><p>along — second syllable stress</p><p>aside — second syllable</p><p>stress</p><p>running — first syllable stress</p><p>harder — first syllable stress</p><p>simple — first syllable stress</p><p>because — second syllable stress</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 2.3 — Identify the Rhythmic Pattern</p><p>1. da-DA-da-DA-da</p><p>2. DA-da</p><p>3. da</p><p>4. da-DA-da-DA</p><p>5. DA-DA</p><p>6. da-DA-DA-da-da</p><p>7. da-DA</p><p>8. da-DA-da</p><p>9. da-da-DA</p><p>10. DA-da-DA</p><p>258</p><p>Chapter 3 — Vowels</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.5 — AH [ɑ] vs. UH [ʌ] Test</p><p>1. UH as in BUTTER [ʌ]</p><p>2. sung</p><p>3. pop</p><p>4. crossed</p><p>5. rubber</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.9 — AH [ɑ] vs. AA [æ] Test</p><p>1. AA as in BAT [æ]</p><p>2. bomb</p><p>3. bag</p><p>4. rock</p><p>5. last</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.13 — EH [ɛ] vs. AA [æ] Test</p><p>1. AA as in BAT [æ]</p><p>2. had</p><p>3. leapt</p><p>4. guess</p><p>5. cattle</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.17 — IH [ɪ] vs. EE [i] Test</p><p>1. EE as in SHE [i]</p><p>2. hill</p><p>3. it</p><p>4. living</p><p>5. ream</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.19 — EH [ɛ] vs. IH [ɪ] Test</p><p>1. IH as in SIT [ɪ]</p><p>2. strep</p><p>3. wet</p><p>4. will</p><p>5. knit</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.23 — UH [ʊ] vs. OO [u] Test</p><p>1. OO as in BOO [u]</p><p>2. wooed</p><p>3. full</p><p>4. kooky</p><p>5. pool</p><p>259</p><p>Test yourself: Non-Audio 3.1 — Match the Sound with the Symbol</p><p>1. h</p><p>2. g</p><p>3. i</p><p>4. f</p><p>5. d</p><p>6. b</p><p>7. j</p><p>8. a</p><p>9. e</p><p>10. k</p><p>11. c</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.27 — Vowel Test1. g — IH as in SIT</p><p>2. d — AA as in BAT</p><p>3. i — UH as in PUSH</p><p>4. a — UH as in BUTTER</p><p>5. b — AH as in FATHER</p><p>6. k — UR as in BIRD</p><p>7. j — UH as in SUPPLY (Schwa)</p><p>8. g — EE as in SHE</p><p>9. e — EH as in BED</p><p>10. h — OO as in BOO</p><p>11. c — AW as in LAW</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.28 — Stressed or Unstressed?</p><p>1. unstressed</p><p>2. stressed</p><p>3. stressed</p><p>4. unstressed</p><p>5. stressed</p><p>6. stressed</p><p>7. unstressed</p><p>8. unstressed</p><p>9. unstressed</p><p>10. stressed</p><p>260</p><p>Chapter 4 — Diphthongs</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 4.4 — OH [oʊ] vs. AW [ɔ] or AH [ɑ] Test</p><p>1. OH as in NOW [oʊ]</p><p>2. toad</p><p>3. taupe</p><p>4. bossed</p><p>5. toast</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 4.7 — OW [aʊ] vs. AW [ɔ] or AH [ɑ] Test</p><p>1. AW as in LAW [ɔ]</p><p>2. out</p><p>3. moth</p><p>4. foul</p><p>5. brown</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 4.11 — AY [eɪ] vs. IH [ɪ] vs. EE [i] Test</p><p>1. hail, heel, hill</p><p>2. knit, neat, Nate</p><p>3. wheel, whale, will</p><p>4. grin, grain, green</p><p>5. nail, nil, kneel</p><p>Test yourself: Non-Audio 4.1 — Match the Symbols with the Sound</p><p>1. c</p><p>2. a</p><p>3. d</p><p>4. f</p><p>5. b</p><p>6. e</p><p>Test yourself: Non-Audio 4.1 — Match the Symbols with the Sound</p><p>1. c</p><p>2. a</p><p>3. d</p><p>4. f</p><p>5. b</p><p>6. e</p><p>261</p><p>Test yourself: Audio 4.14 — What diphthong are you hearing?</p><p>1. d — AY as in SAY</p><p>2. f — EW as in FEW</p><p>3. a — OH as in NO</p><p>4. b — OW as in NOW</p><p>5. e — OY as in TOY</p><p>6. c — AI as in BUY</p><p>Test yourself: Audio 4.15 — Mixed Minimal Pairs, Vowels and Diphthongs</p><p>1. wrong — hale, hill, heal</p><p>2. wrong — lane, Lynne, lean</p><p>3. wrong — out, ought</p><p>4. right</p><p>5. wrong — bog, bag</p><p>6. right</p><p>7. right</p><p>8. wrong — stuck, stock</p><p>9. wrong — bed, bad</p><p>10. right</p><p>11. wrong — fill, fell</p><p>12. right</p><p>13. wrong — wood, wooed</p><p>14. wrong — full, fool</p><p>Chapter 5 — Consonants</p><p>Test yourself: Non-Audio 5.1 — How should the T’s be pronounced?</p><p>a. True T b. Flap T c. Stop T</p><p>1. b</p><p>2. b</p><p>3. c</p><p>4. a</p><p>5. a</p><p>6. c</p><p>7. a</p><p>8. b</p><p>9. a</p><p>10. c</p><p>262</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 5.7 — Which T do you Hear?</p><p>1. hot — Stop T</p><p>2. task — True T</p><p>3. a lot of — Flap T</p><p>4. interview — No T</p><p>5. connect — True T</p><p>6. partake — True T</p><p>7. water — Flap T</p><p>8. bottom — Flap T</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 5.19 — N [n] vs. NG [ŋ]</p><p>1. NG [ŋ]</p><p>2. king</p><p>3. sane</p><p>4. gong</p><p>5. run</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 5.25 — R [ɹ] vs. W [w]</p><p>1. W [w]</p><p>2. rut</p><p>3. weighed</p><p>4. ring</p><p>5. rail</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 5.29 — R [ɹ] vs. L [l]</p><p>1. R [ɹ]</p><p>2. rake</p><p>3. fly</p><p>4. glean</p><p>5. litter</p><p>Test Yourself: Non-Audio 5.2 — Match the Symbol to the Sound</p><p>1. i</p><p>2. n</p><p>3. o</p><p>4. j</p><p>5. r</p><p>6. t</p><p>7. v</p><p>8. l</p><p>9. c</p><p>10. w</p><p>11. s</p><p>263</p><p>12. d</p><p>13. k</p><p>14. q</p><p>15. a</p><p>16. e</p><p>17. f</p><p>18. x</p><p>19. m</p><p>20. g</p><p>21. u</p><p>22. p</p><p>23. h</p><p>24. b</p><p>Test Yourself: Non-Audio 5.3 — Which are American English IPA</p><p>Symbols?</p><p>2, 4, 5, 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 5.30 — What Consonant do you Hear?</p><p>1. M [m]</p><p>2. T [t]</p><p>3. W [w]</p><p>4. R [ɹ]</p><p>5. H [h]</p><p>6. NG [ŋ]</p><p>7. Y [j]</p><p>8. B [b]</p><p>9. K [k]</p><p>10. Z [z]</p><p>11. S [s]</p><p>12. SH [ʃ]</p><p>13. TH [θ]</p><p>14. ZH [ʒ]</p><p>15. CH [ʧ]</p><p>Chapter 6 — Consonant Clusters</p><p>Test Yourself: Non-Audio 6.1 — How is the Plural Ending Pronounced?</p><p>1. c</p><p>2. b</p><p>3. a</p><p>4. b</p><p>5. a</p><p>264</p><p>6. b</p><p>7. a</p><p>8. c</p><p>9. c</p><p>10. a</p><p>Test Yourself: Non-Audio 6.2 — How is the -ed Ending Pronounced?</p><p>1. b</p><p>2. b</p><p>3. a</p><p>4. c</p><p>5. c</p><p>6. a</p><p>7. b</p><p>8. a</p><p>9. b</p><p>10. c</p><p>Chapter 7 — Rhythm and Intonation: Multi-Syllable Words</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 7.2 — 3-Syllable Words Test</p><p>a. first b. second c. third</p><p>1. a. rectangle — first</p><p>2. a. fortunate — first</p><p>3. b. abandon — second</p><p>4. c. guarantee — third</p><p>5. b. determine — second</p><p>6. c. magazine — third</p><p>7. b. horizon — second</p><p>8. b. subconscious — second</p><p>9. a. video — first</p><p>10. c. cigarette — third</p><p>Test yourself: Non-Audio 7.1 — Which Syllable has Stress?</p><p>1. annotate — first — [ˈæn əәˌteɪt] (-ate, two syllables before the suffix)</p><p>2. biology — second — [baɪˈɑl əә dʒi] (-logy, one syllable before suffix)</p><p>3. commodify — second — [kəәˈmɑd əәˌfaɪ] (-ify, one syllable before suffix)</p><p>4. barrette — second — [bəәˈɹɛt] (-ette, stress on the suffix)</p><p>5. anxious — first — [ˈæŋk ʃəәs] (-ious, one syllable before suffix)</p><p>6. acrylic — second — [əәˈkɹɪl ɪk] (-ic, one syllable before suffix)</p><p>7. addressee — third — [ˌæd ɹɛ ˈsi] (-ette, stress on the suffix)</p><p>265</p><p>8. conditional — second — [kəәnˈdɪʃ əә nəәl] (-inal, one syllable before suffix)</p><p>9. conspicuous — second — [kəәnˈspɪk ju əәs] (-uous, one syllable before suffix)</p><p>10. consideration — fourth — [kəәnˌsɪd əәˈɹeɪ ʃəәn] (-tion, one syllable before suffix)</p><p>Chapter 8 — Linking</p><p>Test yourself: Non-Audio 8.1 — Which kind of linking is it?</p><p>1. c</p><p>2. b</p><p>3. b</p><p>4. c</p><p>5. a</p><p>6. a</p><p>7. b</p><p>8. c</p><p>9. b</p><p>10. a</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 8.5 — Which Phrase is Linked?</p><p>1. a: on a — linked</p><p>2. b: for the — not linked</p><p>3. b: fly all — not linked</p><p>4. a: had a — linked</p><p>5. b: over there — not linked</p><p>Chapter 9 — Rhythm and Intonation: Stressed Words</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 9.4 — Which Word is the Most Stressed?</p><p>1. go</p><p>2. was</p><p>3. late</p><p>4. doing</p><p>5. that’s</p><p>6. early</p><p>7. report</p><p>8. excuse</p><p>9. bought</p><p>10. class</p><p>266</p><p>Test yourself: Audio 9.6 — Up or Down?</p><p>1. You — up — question</p><p>2. Yes — down — statement</p><p>3. What time — down — question, but not a yes/no question</p><p>4. Are you hungry — up — question</p><p>5. No — up — question</p><p>6. This one — up — question</p><p>7. They’re late — down — statement</p><p>8. No — down — statement</p><p>9. This one — down — statement</p><p>10. They’re late — up — question</p><p>Chapter 10 — Unstressed Words and Words that Reduce</p><p>Test yourself: Audio 10.15 — Is the Word Reduced?</p><p>1. yes — at</p><p>2. yes — for</p><p>3. yes — should</p><p>4. no — or</p><p>5. yes — and</p><p>6. no — because</p><p>7. yes — to</p><p>8. no — can</p><p>9. yes — was</p><p>10. yes — do</p><p>11. no — them</p><p>12. no — your</p><p>13. yes — as</p><p>14. no — could</p><p>Chapter 11 — Contractions</p><p>Test yourself: Audio 11.10 — What contraction are you hearing?</p><p>1. you’d</p><p>2. what’s</p><p>3. haven’t</p><p>4. won’t</p><p>5. I’ll</p><p>6. can’t</p><p>267</p><p>7. he’ll</p><p>8. aren’t</p><p>9. you’re</p><p>10. should’ve</p><p>11. we’re</p><p>12. he’s</p><p>13. where’ll</p><p>14. might’ve</p><p>15. I’d</p><p>Chapter 12 — Gonna, Wanna, Gotta</p><p>Test yourself: Non-Audio 12.1 — Used Correctly?</p><p>Only two sentences do not use gonna/wanna/gotta correctly:</p><p>He wanna win. — 3rd Person (he, she, Mary, etc.) cannot use ‘wanna’. Correct:</p><p>He wants to win.</p><p>She gotta know that. — You can’t drop the ‘has’ contraction for the 3rd Person</p><p>(he, she, it, etc.). Correct: She’s gotta know that.</p><p>268</p><p>Appendix 2: Video Index</p><p>Tools for Learning</p><p>0.1 — The IPA: Vowels — engl.io/aac</p><p>0.2 —The IPA: Diphthongs — engl.io/aae</p><p>0.3 —The IPA: Consonants — engl.io/aah</p><p>0.4 —The IPA: Test Yourself — engl.io/aam</p><p>Chapter 1 — Getting Started</p><p>1.1 — Path of the Voice — engl.io/ab7</p><p>1.2 — Placement — engl.io/abf</p><p>1.3 — Neck and Throat Relaxation — engl.io/abm</p><p>1.4 — Jaw Relaxation</p><p>— engl.io/ab2</p><p>1.5 — Tongue Relaxation — engl.io/ab9</p><p>1.6 — Lip Relaxation — engl.io/abx</p><p>1.7 — Soft Palate — engl.io/abr</p><p>Chapter 2 — Introduction to Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation</p><p>2.1 — English: A Stress-Timed Language — engl.io/ac2</p><p>2.2 — Introduction to Word Stress — engl.io/acb</p><p>2.3 — The Shape of a Stressed Syllable — engl.io/ac4</p><p>2.4 — How to Pronounce DOWNLOAD — engl.io/acf</p><p>2.5 — Weddings and 2-Syllable Words — engl.io/ac3</p><p>2.6 — Wedding Venue: 2-Syllable Words — engl.io/ace</p><p>2.7 — Listening Comprehension: 2-Syllable Words — engl.io/ac5</p><p>http://engl.io/aac</p><p>http://engl.io/aae</p><p>http://engl.io/aah</p><p>http://engl.io/aah</p><p>http://engl.io/ab7</p><p>http://engl.io/abf</p><p>http://engl.io/abm</p><p>http://engl.io/ab2</p><p>http://engl.io/ab9</p><p>http://engl.io/abx</p><p>http://engl.io/abr</p><p>http://engl.io/ac2</p><p>http://engl.io/acb</p><p>http://engl.io/ac4</p><p>http://engl.io/acf</p><p>http://engl.io/ac3</p><p>http://engl.io/ace</p><p>http://engl.io/ac5</p><p>269</p><p>Chapter 3 — Vowels</p><p>3.1 — The UH as in BUTTER [ʌ] Vowel — engl.io/ad4</p><p>3.2 — The AH as in FATHER [ɑ] Vowel — engl.io/ada</p><p>3.3 — AH [ɑ] vs. UH [ʌ] — engl.io/adf</p><p>3.4 — The AW as in LAW [ɔ] Vowel — engl.io/adm</p><p>3.5 — How to Pronounce Quarter — engl.io/ads</p><p>3.6 — The AA as in BAT [æ] Vowel — engl.io/adv</p><p>3.7 — Lesson Excerpt: The AA as in BAT Vowel — engl.io/ady</p><p>3.8 — The AA as in BAT Vowel followed by N, M, and NG — engl.io/ae9</p><p>3.9 — English in Real Life: Easter — engl.io/aeb</p><p>3.10 — The EH as in BED [ɛ] Vowel — engl.io/aee</p><p>3.11 — EH [ɛ] vs. AA [æ] — engl.io/aei</p><p>3.12 — The EE as in SHE [i] Vowel — engl.io/aer</p><p>3.13 — The IH as in SIT [ɪ] Vowel — engl.io/aex</p><p>3.14 — EE [i] vs. IH [ɪ] — engl.io/af2</p><p>3.15 — EE, IH, and Vowel Length — engl.io/af3</p><p>3.16 — Beach vs. Bitch — engl.io/af6</p><p>3.17 — The OO as in BOO [u] Vowel — engl.io/afh</p><p>3.18 — The UH as in PUSH [ʊ] Vowel — engl.io/afm</p><p>3.19 — The UH as in SUPPLY [əә] (Schwa) Vowel — engl.io/afx</p><p>3.20 — The UR as in BIRD Vowel — engl.io/ag5</p><p>3.21 — Differences between British and American Vowels — engl.io/agb</p><p>Chapter 4 — Diphthongs</p><p>4.1 — The OH as in NO [oʊ] Diphthong — engl.io/ahd</p><p>4.2 — The OW as in NOW [aʊ] Diphthong — engl.io/ahm</p><p>4.3 — The AI as in BUY [aɪ] Diphthong — engl.io/ahw</p><p>4.4 — The AY as in SAY [eɪ] Diphthong — engl.io/ah2</p><p>4.5 — The OY as in TOY [ɔɪ] Diphthong — engl.io/aie</p><p>4.6 — The EW as in FEW [ju] Diphthong — engl.io/aik</p><p>Chapter 5 — Consonants</p><p>5.1 — Voiced vs. Unvoiced Consonants — engl.io/ak2</p><p>5.2 — The B [b] and P [p] Consonants — engl.io/ak8</p><p>5.3 — Stop Consonants — engl.io/aka</p><p>5.4 — The G [g] and K [k] Consonants — engl.io/akf</p><p>5.5 — Contractversation — engl.io/akj</p><p>5.6 — The Flap T like in PARTY — engl.io/akp</p><p>5.7 — The Flap T like in PRETTY — engl.io/akr</p><p>5.8 — On the Farm — engl.io/akt</p><p>5.9 — T and D between Consonants — engl.io/akv</p><p>http://engl.io/ad4</p><p>http://engl.io/ada</p><p>http://engl.io/adf</p><p>http://engl.io/adm</p><p>http://engl.io/ads</p><p>http://engl.io/adv</p><p>http://engl.io/ady</p><p>http://engl.io/ae9</p><p>http://engl.io/aeb</p><p>http://engl.io/aee</p><p>http://engl.io/aei</p><p>http://engl.io/aer</p><p>http://engl.io/aex</p><p>http://engl.io/af2</p><p>http://engl.io/af3</p><p>http://engl.io/af6</p><p>http://engl.io/afh</p><p>http://engl.io/afm</p><p>http://engl.io/afx</p><p>http://engl.io/ag5</p><p>http://engl.io/agb</p><p>http://engl.io/ahd</p><p>http://engl.io/ahm</p><p>http://engl.io/ahw</p><p>http://engl.io/ah2</p><p>http://engl.io/aie</p><p>http://engl.io/aik</p><p>http://engl.io/ak2</p><p>http://engl.io/ak8</p><p>http://engl.io/aka</p><p>http://engl.io/akf</p><p>http://engl.io/akj</p><p>http://engl.io/akp</p><p>http://engl.io/akr</p><p>http://engl.io/akt</p><p>http://engl.io/akv</p><p>270</p><p>5.10 — The T [t] and D [d] Consonants — engl.io/akx</p><p>5.11 — The Word SEVENTY — engl.io/amz</p><p>5.12 — T Pronunciations — engl.io/anc</p><p>5.13 — T Pronunciations Test — engl.io/ane</p><p>5.14 — Homophone Phrases — engl.io/anj</p><p>5.15 — The V [v] and F [f] Consonants — engl.io/anp</p><p>5.16 — The S [s] and Z [z] Consonants — engl.io/anu</p><p>5.17 — Letter S as the [z] Sound — engl.io/anz</p><p>5.18 — The SH [ʃ] and ZH [ʒ] Consonants — engl.io/an2</p><p>5.19 — The Two TH [θ] and [ð] Consonants — engl.io/an7</p><p>5.20 — The CH [ʧ] and JJ [dʒ] Consonants — engl.io/ap5</p><p>5.21 — The M [m] Consonant — engl.io/apd</p><p>5.22 — The NG [ŋ] Consonant — engl.io/aph</p><p>5.23 — The N [n] Consonant — engl.io/apm</p><p>5.24 — How to Make N [n], Relating to D [d] — engl.io/app</p><p>5.25 — N [n] vs. NG [ŋ] — engl.io/aps</p><p>5.26 — N [n] vs. NG [ŋ] Test — engl.io/apv</p><p>5.27 — The H [h] Consonant — engl.io/ar3</p><p>5.28 — The Y [j] Consonant — engl.io/ar8</p><p>5.29 — The W [w] Consonant — engl.io/are</p><p>5.30 — The R [ɹ] Consonant — engl.io/arh</p><p>5.31 — R [ɹ] vs. W [w] — engl.io/arm</p><p>5.32 — The L [l] Consonant — engl.io/aru</p><p>5.33 — Comparing R [ɹ] and L [l] — engl.io/as4</p><p>5.34 — Listen and Repeat, R [ɹ] and L [l] — engl.io/as7</p><p>Chapter 6 — Consonant Clusters</p><p>6.1 — Holding Out the R Sound — engl.io/at3</p><p>6.2 — How to Make the SHR Cluster — engl.io/at6</p><p>6.3 — How to Make the TR Cluster — engl.io/at8</p><p>6.4 — TR Sounding like CHR — engl.io/ata</p><p>6.5 — How to Make the [kw] Cluster — engl.io/atf</p><p>6.6 — How to Pronounce Quarter — engl.io/ads</p><p>6.7 — How to Pronounce S-Clusters — engl.io/atk</p><p>6.8 — Practice Tip: NTH Cluster — engl.io/atm</p><p>6.9 — How to Make the TS Sound — engl.io/atp</p><p>6.10 — Dropping T and D between Consonants — engl.io/akv</p><p>6.11 — Study: Ending T Clusters in Real English — engl.io/atu</p><p>6.12 — How to Pronounce Plural Nouns — engl.io/atz</p><p>6.13 — How to Pronounce -ed Endings — engl.io/au4</p><p>http://engl.io/akx</p><p>http://engl.io/amz</p><p>http://engl.io/anc</p><p>http://engl.io/ane</p><p>http://engl.io/anj</p><p>http://engl.io/anp</p><p>http://engl.io/anu</p><p>http://engl.io/anz</p><p>http://engl.io/an2</p><p>http://engl.io/an7</p><p>http://engl.io/ap5</p><p>http://engl.io/apd</p><p>http://engl.io/aph</p><p>http://engl.io/apm</p><p>http://engl.io/app</p><p>http://engl.io/aps</p><p>http://engl.io/apv</p><p>http://engl.io/ar3</p><p>http://engl.io/ar8</p><p>http://engl.io/are</p><p>http://engl.io/arh</p><p>http://engl.io/arm</p><p>http://engl.io/aru</p><p>http://engl.io/as4</p><p>http://engl.io/as7</p><p>http://engl.io/at3</p><p>http://engl.io/at6</p><p>http://engl.io/at8</p><p>http://engl.io/ata</p><p>http://engl.io/atf</p><p>http://engl.io/ads</p><p>http://engl.io/atk</p><p>http://engl.io/atm</p><p>http://engl.io/atp</p><p>http://engl.io/akv</p><p>http://engl.io/atu</p><p>http://engl.io/atz</p><p>http://engl.io/au4</p><p>271</p><p>Chapter 7 — Rhythm and Intonation: Multi-Syllable Words</p><p>7.1 — Three-Syllable Words — engl.io/av1</p><p>7.2 — Three-Syllable Words Listening Comprehension — engl.io/av3</p><p>7.3 — Heteronyms — engl.io/ava</p><p>7.4 — How to Pronounce DOWNLOAD — engl.io/acf</p><p>7.5 — Word Stress and Initials — engl.io/avr</p><p>7.6 — Burrito — engl.io/avv</p><p>7.7 — Should Burrito have an American Pronunciation? — engl.io/avx</p><p>7.8 — Procedure — engl.io/avz</p><p>7.9 — Tomorrow — engl.io/aw1</p><p>7.10 — Vacation — engl.io/aw4</p><p>7.11 — Beautiful — engl.io/aw5</p><p>7.12 — Comfortable — engl.io/aw8</p><p>7.13 — Graduate — engl.io/awb</p><p>7.14 — Interview — engl.io/awd</p><p>7.15 — Probably — engl.io/awg</p><p>7.16 — Yesterday — engl.io/awk</p><p>7.17 — Coffee — engl.io/awm</p><p>7.18 — Google — engl.io/awn</p><p>7.19 — Sorry — engl.io/awp</p><p>7.20 — International — engl.io/aws</p><p>7.21 — Opportunity — engl.io/awt</p><p>7.22 — Pronunciation — engl.io/aww</p><p>7.23 — Application — engl.io/awx</p><p>Chapter 8 — Linking</p><p>8.1 — Linking Vowel to Vowel — engl.io/ax4</p><p>8.2 — Linking Consonant to Vowel — engl.io/ax9</p><p>8.3 — Using a Flap T to Link Words — engl.io/axa</p><p>8.4 — My Summer Vacation — engl.io/axd</p><p>8.5 — Got it — engl.io/axf</p><p>8.6 — Linking Consonant to Consonant — engl.io/axk</p><p>8.7 — Linking and the TH — engl.io/axm</p><p>8.8 — Road Trip — engl.io/axp</p><p>8.9 — What time? — engl.io/axr</p><p>Chapter 9 — Rhythm and Intonation: Stressed Words</p><p>9.1 — Three-Syllable Phrases — engl.io/ay2</p><p>9.2 — Content Words — engl.io/ay8</p><p>9.3 — Verbs — engl.io/aya</p><p>9.4 — Which word is the most stressed? — engl.io/ayh</p><p>9.5 — Word Stress and Sentence Position — engl.io/aym</p><p>http://engl.io/av1</p><p>http://engl.io/av3</p><p>http://engl.io/ava</p><p>http://engl.io/acf</p><p>http://engl.io/avr</p><p>http://engl.io/avv</p><p>http://engl.io/avx</p><p>http://engl.io/avz</p><p>http://engl.io/aw1</p><p>http://engl.io/aw4</p><p>http://engl.io/aw5</p><p>http://engl.io/aw8</p><p>http://engl.io/awb</p><p>http://engl.io/awd</p><p>http://engl.io/awg</p><p>http://engl.io/awk</p><p>http://engl.io/awm</p><p>http://engl.io/awn</p><p>http://engl.io/awp</p><p>http://engl.io/aws</p><p>http://engl.io/awt</p><p>http://engl.io/aww</p><p>http://engl.io/awx</p><p>http://engl.io/ax4</p><p>http://engl.io/ax9</p><p>http://engl.io/axa</p><p>http://engl.io/axd</p><p>http://engl.io/axf</p><p>http://engl.io/axk</p><p>http://engl.io/axm</p><p>http://engl.io/axp</p><p>http://engl.io/axr</p><p>http://engl.io/ay2</p><p>http://engl.io/ay8</p><p>http://engl.io/aya</p><p>http://engl.io/ayh</p><p>http://engl.io/aym</p><p>272</p><p>9.6 — Intonation and Lists — engl.io/ays</p><p>9.7 — Intonation and Questions — engl.io/ayu</p><p>9.8 — What time? — engl.io/axr</p><p>9.9 — Are you okay? — engl.io/ayz</p><p>9.10 — Are you sure? — engl.io/az2</p><p>9.11 — Helpful — engl.io/az7</p><p>9.12 — Sorry — engl.io/awp</p><p>9.13 — Favorite — engl.io/azb</p><p>9.14 — Beautiful — engl.io/aw5</p><p>9.15 — Really — engl.io/azg</p><p>9.16 — Definitely — engl.io/azj</p><p>9.17 — Very — engl.io/azn</p><p>9.18 — Probably — engl.io/awg</p><p>Chapter 10 — Unstressed Words and Words that Reduce</p><p>10.1 — ARE Reduction — engl.io/a16</p><p>10.2 — Are you Sure? — engl.io/az2</p><p>10.3 — Are you Okay? — engl.io/ayz</p><p>10.4 — OR Reduction — engl.io/a1c</p><p>10.5 — FOR Reduction — engl.io/a1f</p><p>10.6 — For Sure — engl.io/a1g</p><p>10.7 — YOUR Reduction — engl.io/a1k</p><p>10.8 — AT Reduction — engl.io/a1p</p><p>10.9 — THAT Reduction — engl.io/a1s</p><p>10.10 — Dropping the H Reduction — engl.io/a1x</p><p>10.11 — I have a Cold — engl.io/a1z</p><p>10.12 — I have to Go — engl.io/a21</p><p>10.13 — THEM Reduction — engl.io/a23</p><p>10.14 — OF Reduction — engl.io/a27</p><p>10.15 — CAN Reduction — engl.io/a2i</p><p>10.16 — TO Reduction — engl.io/a2n</p><p>10.17 — See You — engl.io/a2s</p><p>10.18 — DO and DOES Reduction — engl.io/a2v</p><p>10.19 — AND Reduction — engl.io/a32</p><p>10.20 — How to Pronounce THE — engl.io/a37</p><p>10.21 — BECAUSE Reduction — engl.io/a3c</p><p>10.22 — The AS and WAS Reductions — engl.io/a3e</p><p>10.23 — Should, Would, and Could — engl.io/a3j</p><p>Chapter 11 — Contractions</p><p>11.1 — N’T Contractions — engl.io/a41</p><p>http://engl.io/ays</p><p>http://engl.io/ayu</p><p>http://engl.io/axr</p><p>http://engl.io/ayz</p><p>http://engl.io/az2</p><p>http://engl.io/az7</p><p>http://engl.io/awp</p><p>http://engl.io/azb</p><p>http://engl.io/aw5</p><p>http://engl.io/azg</p><p>http://engl.io/azj</p><p>http://engl.io/azn</p><p>http://engl.io/awg</p><p>http://engl.io/a16</p><p>http://engl.io/az2</p><p>http://engl.io/ayz</p><p>http://engl.io/a1c</p><p>http://engl.io/a1f</p><p>http://engl.io/a1g</p><p>http://engl.io/a1k</p><p>http://engl.io/a1p</p><p>http://engl.io/a1s</p><p>http://engl.io/a1x</p><p>http://engl.io/a1z</p><p>http://engl.io/a21</p><p>http://engl.io/a23</p><p>http://engl.io/a27</p><p>http://engl.io/a2i</p><p>http://engl.io/a2n</p><p>http://engl.io/a2s</p><p>http://engl.io/a2v</p><p>http://engl.io/a32</p><p>http://engl.io/a37</p><p>http://engl.io/a3c</p><p>http://engl.io/a3e</p><p>http://engl.io/a3j</p><p>http://engl.io/a41</p><p>273</p><p>11.2 — Interview a Broadcaster: Rehema Ellis — engl.io/a44</p><p>11.3 — CAN vs. CAN’T — engl.io/a4a</p><p>11.4 — TO BE Contractions — engl.io/a4e</p><p>11.5 — I’m Coming — engl.io/a4g</p><p>11.6 — YOU’RE Contraction — engl.io/a1k</p><p>11.7 — Interview a Broadcaster: Erica Hill — engl.io/a4m</p><p>11.8 — That’s / It’s / What’s Reduction — engl.io/a4p</p><p>11.9 — Shoulda, Woulda, Coulda — engl.io/a4y</p><p>11.10 — We’ll see — engl.io/a51</p><p>11.11 — I’ll think about it — engl.io/a53</p><p>11.12 — WHAT DID Reduction — engl.io/a5a</p><p>11.13 — Contractions — engl.io/a5c</p><p>11.14 — Pronunciation of WH Words — engl.io/a5h</p><p>11.15 — Contractversation — engl.io/a5n</p><p>11.16 — Contractversation — engl.io/a5p</p><p>11.17 — Contractversation — engl.io/a5s</p><p>Chapter 12 — Gonna, Wanna, Gotta</p><p>12.1 — Presidential Speeches — engl.io/a62</p><p>12.2 — How to Pronounce GONNA and WANNA — engl.io/a63</p><p>12.3 — Pronunciation Focus: Gonna — engl.io/a66</p><p>12.4 — Real Life English: Wedding Venue — engl.io/a68</p><p>12.5 — I’m Gonna Reduction — engl.io/a6d</p><p>12.6 — Interview a Broadcaster: Chris Jansing — engl.io/a6f</p><p>12.7 — Vacation 2012 — engl.io/axd</p><p>12.8 — Thanksgiving 2011 — engl.io/a6m</p><p>12.9 — How to Pronounce GONNA and GOTTA — engl.io/a6p</p><p>Chapter 13 — Putting it all together</p><p>13.1 — Ben Franklin Exercise — engl.io/a72</p><p>13.2 — Excuse Me — engl.io/a74</p><p>13.3 — How to Sound like a Native Speaker — engl.io/a9c</p><p>13.4 — Where I live — engl.io/a9d</p><p>13.5 — What did you do today? — engl.io/a9f</p><p>13.6 — Free Time — engl.io/a9h</p><p>13.7 — Evening Plans — engl.io/a9k</p><p>13.8 — Stressed — engl.io/a9m</p><p>13.9 — Brooklyn Neighborhoods — engl.io/a9r</p><p>13.10 — Don’t Keep a Secret — engl.io/a9s</p><p>13.11 — I Shouldn’t be Bragging — engl.io/a9u</p><p>13.12 — Pan Am — engl.io/a9x</p><p>http://engl.io/a44</p><p>http://engl.io/a4a</p><p>http://engl.io/a4e</p><p>http://engl.io/a4g</p><p>http://engl.io/a1k</p><p>http://engl.io/a4m</p><p>http://engl.io/a4p</p><p>http://engl.io/a4y</p><p>http://engl.io/a51</p><p>http://engl.io/a53</p><p>http://engl.io/a5a</p><p>http://engl.io/a5c</p><p>http://engl.io/a5h</p><p>http://engl.io/a5n</p><p>http://engl.io/a5p</p><p>http://engl.io/a5s</p><p>http://engl.io/a62</p><p>http://engl.io/a63</p><p>http://engl.io/a66</p><p>http://engl.io/a68</p><p>http://engl.io/a6d</p><p>http://engl.io/a6f</p><p>http://engl.io/axd</p><p>http://engl.io/a6m</p><p>http://engl.io/a6p</p><p>http://engl.io/a72</p><p>http://engl.io/a74</p><p>http://engl.io/a9c</p><p>http://engl.io/a9d</p><p>http://engl.io/a9f</p><p>http://engl.io/a9h</p><p>http://engl.io/a9k</p><p>http://engl.io/a9m</p><p>http://engl.io/a9r</p><p>http://engl.io/a9s</p><p>http://engl.io/a9u</p><p>http://engl.io/a9x</p><p>274</p><p>13.13 — What’s going on? — engl.io/a9z</p><p>13.14 — Call Ignored — engl.io/a91</p><p>13.15 — People Change — engl.io/1a2</p><p>13.16 — Terminator — engl.io/1a4</p><p>13.17 — Big Love — engl.io/1a5</p><p>13.18 — Carousel — engl.io/1a8</p><p>13.19 — 500 Days of Summer — engl.io/1ab</p><p>13.20 — The Art of Getting By — engl.io/1ad</p><p>13.21 — Eavesdrop — engl.io/1af</p><p>13.22 — Peggy’s New Office — engl.io/1ah</p><p>13.23 — Midnight in Paris — engl.io/1ak</p><p>13.24 — Bored to Death — engl.io/1am</p><p>13.25 — Let’s Do Lunch — engl.io/1ap</p><p>13.26 — Thanksgiving 2012 — engl.io/1as</p><p>13.27 — What did you do today? — engl.io/1au</p><p>13.28 — Is Tom Stressed? — engl.io/1aw</p><p>13.29 — Is Rachel Stressed? — engl.io/1ax</p><p>http://engl.io/a9z</p><p>http://engl.io/a91</p><p>http://engl.io/1a2</p><p>http://engl.io/1a4</p><p>http://engl.io/1a5</p><p>http://engl.io/1a8</p><p>http://engl.io/1ab</p><p>http://engl.io/1ad</p><p>http://engl.io/1af</p><p>http://engl.io/1ah</p><p>http://engl.io/1ak</p><p>http://engl.io/1am</p><p>http://engl.io/1ap</p><p>http://engl.io/1as</p><p>http://engl.io/1au</p><p>http://engl.io/1aw</p><p>http://engl.io/1ax</p><p>275</p><p>Appendix 3: Audio Index</p><p>Chapter 1 — Getting Started</p><p>1.1 — Listen + Repeat: Imitation — engl.io/ab1</p><p>1.2 — Listen + Repeat: Placement — engl.io/abt</p><p>Chapter 2 — Introduction to Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation</p><p>2.1 — Test Yourself: Which Syllable is Stressed? — engl.io/acg</p><p>2.2 — Listen + Repeat: Rhythmic Patterns — engl.io/ac6</p><p>2.3 — Test Yourself: Identify the Rhythmic Pattern — engl.io/ac7</p><p>Chapter 3 — Vowels</p><p>3.1 — Listen: Vowels — engl.io/ad1</p><p>3.2 — Listen + Repeat: The UH as in BUTTER [ʌ] Vowel — engl.io/ad8</p><p>3.3 — Listen + Repeat: The AH as in FATHER [ɑ] Vowel — engl.io/adc</p><p>3.4 — Listen + Repeat: AH [ɑ] vs. UH [ʌ] — engl.io/adh</p><p>3.5 — Test Yourself: AH [ɑ] vs. UH [ʌ] Test — engl.io/adk</p><p>3.6 — Listen + Repeat: The AW as in LAW [ɔ] Vowel — engl.io/adp</p><p>3.7 — Listen + Repeat: The AA as in BAT [æ] Vowel — engl.io/ae2</p><p>3.8 — Listen + Repeat: AH [ɑ] vs. AA [æ] — engl.io/ae4</p><p>3.9 — Test Yourself: AH [ɑ] vs. AA [æ] Test — engl.io/ae7</p><p>3.10 — Listen + Repeat: AA [æ] followed by Nasal Consonants — engl.io/aed</p><p>3.11 — Listen + Repeat: The EH as in BED [ɛ] Vowel — engl.io/aeg</p><p>3.12 — Listen + Repeat: AA [æ] vs. EH [ɛ] — engl.io/aek</p><p>http://engl.io/ab1</p><p>http://engl.io/abt</p><p>http://engl.io/acg</p><p>http://engl.io/ac6</p><p>http://engl.io/ac7</p><p>http://engl.io/ad1</p><p>http://engl.io/ad8</p><p>http://engl.io/adc</p><p>http://engl.io/adh</p><p>http://engl.io/adk</p><p>http://engl.io/adp</p><p>http://engl.io/ae2</p><p>http://engl.io/ae4</p><p>http://engl.io/ae7</p><p>http://engl.io/aed</p><p>http://engl.io/aeg</p><p>http://engl.io/aek</p><p>276</p><p>3.13 — Test Yourself: EH [ɛ] vs. AA [æ] Test — engl.io/aen</p><p>3.14 — Listen + Repeat: The EE as in SHE [i] Vowel — engl.io/aet</p><p>3.15 — Listen + Repeat: The IH as in SIT [ɪ] Vowel — engl.io/aez</p><p>3.16 — Listen + Repeat: IH [ɪ] vs. EE [i] — engl.io/af8</p><p>3.17 — Test Yourself: IH [ɪ] vs. EE [i] Test — engl.io/afb</p><p>3.18 — Listen + Repeat: EH [ɛ] vs. IH [ɪ] — engl.io/afc</p><p>3.19 — Test Yourself: EH [ɛ] vs. IH [ɪ] Test — engl.io/aff</p><p>3.20 — Listen + Repeat: The OO as in BOO [u] Vowel — engl.io/afk</p><p>3.21 — Listen + Repeat: The UH as in PUSH [ʊ] Vowel — engl.io/afp</p><p>3.22 — Listen + Repeat: UH [ʊ] vs. OO [u] — engl.io/afs</p><p>3.23 — Test Yourself: UH [ʊ] vs. OO [u] Test — engl.io/afv</p><p>3.24 — Listen + Repeat: The UH as in SUPPLY [əә] Vowel (Schwa) —</p><p>engl.io/ag1</p><p>3.25 — Listen + Repeat: Syllabic Consonants — engl.io/ag3</p><p>3.26 — Listen + Repeat: The UR as in BIRD [ɜ] Vowel — engl.io/ag8</p><p>3.27 — Test Yourself: Vowel Test — engl.io/agc</p><p>3.28 — Test Yourself — Stressed or Unstressed? — engl.io/age</p><p>Chapter 4 — Diphthongs</p><p>4.1 — Listen: Diphthongs — engl.io/aha</p><p>4.2 — Listen + Repeat: The OH as in NO [oʊ] Diphthong — engl.io/ahf</p><p>4.3 — Listen + Repeat: OH [oʊ] vs. AW [ɔ] or AH [ɑ] — engl.io/ahg</p><p>4.4 — Test Yourself: OH [oʊ] vs. AW [ɔ] or AH [ɑ] Test — engl.io/ahj</p><p>4.5 — Listen + Repeat: The OW as in NOW [aʊ] Diphthong — engl.io/ahp</p><p>4.6 — Listen + Repeat: OW [aʊ] vs. AW [ɔ] or AH [ɑ] — engl.io/ahr</p><p>4.7 — Test Yourself: OW [aʊ] vs. AW [ɔ] or AH [ɑ] Test — engl.io/ahu</p><p>4.8 — Listen + Repeat: The AI as in BUY [aɪ] Diphthong — engl.io/ahy</p><p>4.9 — Listen + Repeat: The AY as in SAY [eɪ] Diphthong — engl.io/ah5</p><p>4.10 — Listen + Repeat: AY [eɪ] vs. IH [ɪ] vs. EE [i] — engl.io/ah8</p><p>4.11 — Test Yourself: AY [eɪ] vs. IH [ɪ] vs. EE [i] Test — engl.io/aib</p><p>4.12 — Listen + Repeat: The OY as in TOY [ɔɪ] Diphthong — engl.io/aig</p><p>4.13 — Listen + Repeat: The EW as in FEW [ju] Diphthong — engl.io/ain</p><p>4.14 — Test Yourself: What diphthong are you hearing? — engl.io/aip</p><p>4.15 — Test Yourself: Mixed Minimal Pairs, Vowels and Diphthongs —</p><p>engl.io/ais</p><p>Chapter 5 — Consonants</p><p>5.1 — Listen + Repeat: Paired Consonants — engl.io/ak4</p><p>5.2 — Listen + Repeat: Unpaired Consonants — engl.io/ak7</p><p>5.3 — Listen + Repeat: The B [b] and P [p] Consonants — engl.io/akd</p><p>5.4 — Listen + Repeat: The G [g] and K [k] Consonants — engl.io/akh</p><p>http://engl.io/aen</p><p>http://engl.io/aet</p><p>http://engl.io/aez</p><p>http://engl.io/af8</p><p>http://engl.io/afb</p><p>http://engl.io/afc</p><p>http://engl.io/aff</p><p>http://engl.io/afk</p><p>http://engl.io/afp</p><p>http://engl.io/afs</p><p>http://engl.io/afv</p><p>http://engl.io/ag1</p><p>http://engl.io/ag3</p><p>http://engl.io/ag8</p><p>http://engl.io/agc</p><p>http://engl.io/age</p><p>http://engl.io/aha</p><p>http://engl.io/ahf</p><p>http://engl.io/ahg</p><p>http://engl.io/ahj</p><p>http://engl.io/ahp</p><p>http://engl.io/ahr</p><p>http://engl.io/ahu</p><p>http://engl.io/ahy</p><p>http://engl.io/ah5</p><p>http://engl.io/ah8</p><p>http://engl.io/aib</p><p>http://engl.io/aig</p><p>http://engl.io/ain</p><p>http://engl.io/aip</p><p>http://engl.io/ais</p><p>http://engl.io/ak4</p><p>http://engl.io/ak7</p><p>http://engl.io/akd</p><p>http://engl.io/akh</p><p>277</p><p>5.5 — Listen + Repeat: Stop T vs. No T — engl.io/akm</p><p>5.6 — Listen + Repeat: The Three T Sounds — engl.io/anb</p><p>5.7 — Test Yourself: What T do you Hear? — engl.io/ang</p><p>5.8 — Listen + Repeat: The D [d] Consonant — engl.io/anm</p><p>5.9 — Listen + Repeat: The V [v] and F [f] Consonants — engl.io/ans</p><p>5.10 — Listen + Repeat: The Z [z] and S [s] Consonants — engl.io/anw</p><p>5.11 — Listen + Repeat: The SH [ʃ] and ZH [ʒ] Consonants — engl.io/an4</p><p>5.12 — Listen + Repeat: The Two TH [θ] and [ð] Consonants — engl.io/ap2</p><p>5.13 — Listen + Repeat: The CH [ʧ] and JJ [dʒ] Consonants — engl.io/ap8</p><p>5.14 — Listen + Repeat: SH [ʃ] vs. CH [ʧ] — engl.io/apb</p><p>5.15 — Listen + Repeat: The M [m] Consonant — engl.io/apf</p><p>5.16 — Listen + Repeat: The NG [ŋ] Consonant — engl.io/apk</p><p>5.17 — Listen + Repeat: The N [n] Consonant — engl.io/apx</p><p>5.18 — Listen + Repeat: N [n] vs. NG [ŋ] — engl.io/apz</p><p>5.19 — Test Yourself: N [n] vs. NG [ŋ] Test — engl.io/ar1</p><p>5.20 — Listen + Repeat: The H [h] Consonant — engl.io/ar5</p><p>5.21 — Listen + Repeat: The Y [j] Consonant — engl.io/arb</p><p>5.22 — Listen + Repeat: The W [w] Consonant — engl.io/arf</p><p>5.23 — Listen + Repeat: The R [ɹ] Consonant — engl.io/arj</p><p>5.24 — Listen + Repeat: R [ɹ] vs. W [w] — engl.io/arp</p><p>5.25 — Test Yourself: R [ɹ] vs. W [w] Test — engl.io/arr</p><p>5.26 — Listen + Repeat: The L [l] Consonant — engl.io/arw</p><p>5.27 — Listen + Repeat: L [l] vs. OH [oʊ] — engl.io/arz</p><p>5.28 — Listen + Repeat: R [ɹ] vs. L [l] — engl.io/as2</p><p>5.29 — Test Yourself: R [ɹ] vs. L [l] Test — engl.io/as9</p><p>5.30 — Test Yourself: What Consonant do you Hear? — engl.io/asc</p><p>Chapter 6 — Consonant Clusters</p><p>6.1 — Listen + Repeat: Beginning Clusters — engl.io/at1</p><p>6.2 — Listen + Repeat: R Clusters — engl.io/atc</p><p>6.3 — Listen + Repeat: Middle and Ending Clusters — engl.io/atw</p><p>6.4 — Listen + Repeat: Plural Nouns — engl.io/au2</p><p>6.5 — Listen + Repeat: Regular Past Tense — engl.io/au7</p><p>Chapter 7 — Rhythm and Intonation: Multi-Syllable Words</p><p>7.1 — Listen + Repeat: 3-Syllable Words — engl.io/av5</p><p>7.2 — Test Yourself: 3-Syllable Words Test — engl.io/av8</p><p>7.3 — Listen + Repeat: Verbs vs. Nouns — engl.io/avd</p><p>7.4 — Listen + Repeat: Suffixes: Stress on the Suffix — engl.io/avf</p><p>7.5 — Listen + Repeat: Suffixes: Stress just before the Suffix — engl.io/avf</p><p>http://engl.io/akm</p><p>http://engl.io/anb</p><p>http://engl.io/ang</p><p>http://engl.io/anm</p><p>http://engl.io/ans</p><p>http://engl.io/anw</p><p>http://engl.io/an4</p><p>http://engl.io/ap2</p><p>http://engl.io/ap8</p><p>http://engl.io/apb</p><p>http://engl.io/apf</p><p>http://engl.io/apk</p><p>http://engl.io/apx</p><p>http://engl.io/apz</p><p>http://engl.io/ar1</p><p>http://engl.io/ar5</p><p>http://engl.io/arb</p><p>http://engl.io/arf</p><p>http://engl.io/arj</p><p>http://engl.io/arp</p><p>http://engl.io/arr</p><p>http://engl.io/arw</p><p>http://engl.io/arz</p><p>http://engl.io/as2</p><p>http://engl.io/as9</p><p>http://engl.io/asc</p><p>http://engl.io/at1</p><p>http://engl.io/atc</p><p>http://engl.io/atw</p><p>http://engl.io/au2</p><p>http://engl.io/au7</p><p>http://engl.io/av5</p><p>http://engl.io/av8</p><p>http://engl.io/avd</p><p>http://engl.io/avf</p><p>http://engl.io/avf</p><p>278</p><p>7.6 — Listen + Repeat: Suffixes: Stress two syllables before the Suffix —</p><p>engl.io/avf</p><p>7.7 — Listen + Repeat: Compound Words — engl.io/avp</p><p>7.8 — Listen + Repeat: Initials — engl.io/avt</p><p>Chapter 8 — Linking</p><p>8.1 — Listen: Thought Groups — engl.io/ax1</p><p>8.2 — Listen + Repeat: Linking Vowel to Vowel — engl.io/ax7</p><p>8.3 — Listen + Repeat: Linking Consonant to Vowel — engl.io/axh</p><p>8.4 — Listen + Repeat: Linking the Stop T to a Consonant — engl.io/axu</p><p>8.5 — Test Yourself: Which Phrase is Linked? — engl.io/axw</p><p>Chapter 9 — Rhythm and Intonation: Stressed Words</p><p>9.1 — Listen + Repeat: Three-Syllable Words and Phrases — engl.io/ay5</p><p>9.2 — Listen + Repeat: Content Words — engl.io/ayc</p><p>9.3 — Listen + Repeat: Content Words, Slow Motion — engl.io/aye</p><p>9.4 — Test Yourself: Which Word is the Most Stressed? — engl.io/ayk</p><p>9.5 — Listen: One Thought Leading to Another — engl.io/ayp</p><p>9.6 — Test Yourself: Up or Down? — engl.io/az4</p><p>Chapter 10 — Unstressed Words and Words that Reduce</p><p>10.1 — Listen: Stressed vs. Unstressed — engl.io/a12</p><p>10.2 — Listen: Stressed vs. Reduced — engl.io/a14</p><p>10.3 — Listen + Repeat: ARE, OR, FOR, YOUR — engl.io/a1m</p><p>10.4 — Listen + Repeat: AT and THAT — engl.io/a1v</p><p>10.5 — Listen + Repeat: Dropping the H — engl.io/a2b</p><p>10.6 — Listen + Repeat: THEM — engl.io/a2e</p><p>10.7 — Listen + Repeat: OF — engl.io/a2g</p><p>10.8 — Listen + Repeat: CAN — engl.io/a2k</p><p>10.9 — Listen + Repeat: TO — engl.io/a2p</p><p>10.10 — Listen + Repeat: DO and DOES — engl.io/a2w</p><p>10.11 — Listen + Repeat: AND — engl.io/a34</p><p>10.12 — Listen + Repeat: THE — engl.io/a38</p><p>10.13 — Listen + Repeat: AS, WAS, BECAUSE — engl.io/a3g</p><p>10.14 — Listen + Repeat: SHOULD, WOULD, and COULD — engl.io/a3k</p><p>10.15 — Test yourself: Is the Word Reduced? — engl.io/a3n</p><p>Chapter 11 — Contractions</p><p>11.1 — Listen + Repeat: N’T Contractions — engl.io/a48</p><p>http://engl.io/avf</p><p>http://engl.io/avp</p><p>http://engl.io/avt</p><p>http://engl.io/ax1</p><p>http://engl.io/ax7</p><p>http://engl.io/axh</p><p>http://engl.io/axu</p><p>http://engl.io/axw</p><p>http://engl.io/ay5</p><p>http://engl.io/ayc</p><p>http://engl.io/aye</p><p>http://engl.io/ayk</p><p>http://engl.io/ayp</p><p>http://engl.io/az4</p><p>http://engl.io/a12</p><p>http://engl.io/a14</p><p>http://engl.io/a1m</p><p>http://engl.io/a1v</p><p>http://engl.io/a2b</p><p>http://engl.io/a2e</p><p>http://engl.io/a2g</p><p>http://engl.io/a2k</p><p>http://engl.io/a2p</p><p>http://engl.io/a2w</p><p>http://engl.io/a34</p><p>http://engl.io/a38</p><p>http://engl.io/a3g</p><p>http://engl.io/a3k</p><p>http://engl.io/a3n</p><p>http://engl.io/a48</p><p>279</p><p>11.2 — Listen + Repeat: Can vs. Can’t — engl.io/a4c</p><p>11.3 — Listen + Repeat: TO BE and TO HAVE Contractions — engl.io/a4s</p><p>11.4 — Listen + Repeat: Modal Verb Contractions — engl.io/a4u</p><p>11.5 — Listen + Repeat: Modal Verb Contractions, Slow Motion — engl.io/a4w</p><p>11.6 — Listen + Repeat: ‘LL Contractions — engl.io/a56</p><p>11.7 — Listen + Repeat: ‘LL Contractions,</p><p>Slow Motion — engl.io/a58</p><p>11.8 — Listen + Repeat: WOULD, HAD, and DID Reductions — engl.io/a5f</p><p>11.9 — Listen + Repeat: Contractions with Reductions — engl.io/a5k</p><p>11.10 — Test Yourself: What contraction are you hearing? — engl.io/a5m</p><p>Chapter 12 — Gonna, Wanna, Gotta</p><p>12.1 — Listen + Repeat: Gonna — engl.io/a6b</p><p>12.2 — Listen + Repeat: Wanna — engl.io/a6k</p><p>12.3 — Listen + Repeat: Gotta — engl.io/a6s</p><p>Chapter 13 — Putting it all together</p><p>13.1 — Listen: Penn Station — engl.io/a77</p><p>13.2 — Listen + Repeat: Penn Station Practice — engl.io/a79</p><p>13.3 — Listen: Subway Stop — engl.io/a7c</p><p>13.4 — Listen + Repeat: Subway Stop Practice — engl.io/a7f</p><p>13.5 — Listen: Directions Dialog — engl.io/a7g</p><p>13.6 — Listen + Repeat: Directions Dialog Practice — engl.io/a7k</p><p>13.7 — Listen: Reservations — engl.io/a7m</p><p>13.8 — Listen + Repeat: Reservations Practice — engl.io/a7p</p><p>13.9 — Listen: Wait Time — engl.io/a7s</p><p>13.10 — Listen + Repeat: Wait Time Practice — engl.io/a7v</p><p>13.11 — Listen: At a Restaurant Dialog — engl.io/a7x</p><p>13.12 — Listen + Repeat: At a Restaurant Dialog Practice — engl.io/a82</p><p>13.13 — Listen: Another Size — engl.io/a84</p><p>13.14 — Listen + Repeat: Another Size Practice — engl.io/a85</p><p>13.15 — Listen: Return Policy — engl.io/a88</p><p>13.16 — Listen + Repeat: Return Policy Practice — engl.io/a8a</p><p>13.17 — Listen: Shopping Dialog — engl.io/a8b</p><p>13.18 — Listen + Repeat: Shopping Dialog Practice — engl.io/a8d</p><p>13.19 — Listen: Meeting Moved — engl.io/a8f</p><p>13.20 — Listen: Stressed Words and Sentence Position — engl.io/a8g</p><p>13.21 — Listen + Repeat: Meeting Moved Practice — engl.io/a8i</p><p>13.22 — Listen: Report — engl.io/a8k</p><p>13.23 — Listen + Repeat: Report Practice — engl.io/a8m</p><p>13.24 — Listen: At Work Dialog — engl.io/a8p</p><p>13.25 — Listen + Repeat: At Work Dialog Practice — engl.io/a8r</p><p>http://engl.io/a4c</p><p>http://engl.io/a4s</p><p>http://engl.io/a4u</p><p>http://engl.io/a4w</p><p>http://engl.io/a56</p><p>http://engl.io/a58</p><p>http://engl.io/a5f</p><p>http://engl.io/a5k</p><p>http://engl.io/a5m</p><p>http://engl.io/a6b</p><p>http://engl.io/a6k</p><p>http://engl.io/a6s</p><p>http://engl.io/a77</p><p>http://engl.io/a79</p><p>http://engl.io/a7c</p><p>http://engl.io/a7f</p><p>http://engl.io/a7g</p><p>http://engl.io/a7k</p><p>http://engl.io/a7m</p><p>http://engl.io/a7p</p><p>http://engl.io/a7s</p><p>http://engl.io/a7v</p><p>http://engl.io/a7x</p><p>http://engl.io/a82</p><p>http://engl.io/a84</p><p>http://engl.io/a85</p><p>http://engl.io/a88</p><p>http://engl.io/a8a</p><p>http://engl.io/a8b</p><p>http://engl.io/a8d</p><p>http://engl.io/a8f</p><p>http://engl.io/a8g</p><p>http://engl.io/a8i</p><p>http://engl.io/a8k</p><p>http://engl.io/a8m</p><p>http://engl.io/a8p</p><p>http://engl.io/a8r</p><p>280</p><p>13.26 — Listen: Tomorrow Night — engl.io/a8s</p><p>13.27 — Listen + Repeat: Tomorrow Night Practice — engl.io/a8v</p><p>13.28 — Listen: Love To — engl.io/a8y</p><p>13.29 — Listen + Repeat: Love To Practice — engl.io/a92</p><p>13.30 — Listen: Out of Town — engl.io/a93</p><p>13.31 — Listen + Repeat: Out of Town Practice — engl.io/a95</p><p>13.32 — Listen: Making Plans Dialog — engl.io/a98</p><p>13.33 — Listen + Repeat: Making Plans Dialog Practice — engl.io/a9a</p><p>http://engl.io/a8s</p><p>http://engl.io/a8v</p><p>http://engl.io/a8y</p><p>http://engl.io/a92</p><p>http://engl.io/a93</p><p>http://engl.io/a95</p><p>http://engl.io/a98</p><p>http://engl.io/a9a</p><p>281</p><p>Appendix 4: Sound Chart</p><p>If was any confusion about whether or not English is a phonetic language, this list</p><p>should make you sure! English is not phonetic. See that the letter “A” can</p><p>represent seven different vowel and diphthong sounds.</p><p>The Letter A</p><p>a ... 'aa' as in 'bat' ... [æ] ... exact</p><p>a ... 'ah' as in 'father' ... [α] ... father</p><p>a ...'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] ... fall</p><p>a ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [əә] ... about</p><p>a ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... base, able</p><p>a ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [ε] ... share</p><p>a ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [ɪ] ... private</p><p>aa ... 'ah' as in 'father' ... [α] ... bazaar, aardvark</p><p>ai ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [ε] ... said</p><p>ai ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... aisle</p><p>ai ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... maid</p><p>ai ... 'aa' as in 'bat' ... [æ] ... plaid</p><p>au ...'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] ... cause</p><p>au ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... gauge</p><p>au ... 'aa' as in 'bat' ... [æ] ... aunt</p><p>au ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... chauffeur</p><p>ay ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [ε] ... says</p><p>ay ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... pay</p><p>ay ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... quay</p><p>aye ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... aye</p><p>282</p><p>augh ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] ... daughter</p><p>aw ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] ... shawl</p><p>ea ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... heat</p><p>ea ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [əә] ... ocean</p><p>ea ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [ε] ... head</p><p>ea ... 'ah' as in 'father' ... [α] ... heart</p><p>ea ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... great</p><p>eau ... 'ew' as in 'few' ... [ju] ... beauty</p><p>eau ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... beau</p><p>ea[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [ɜ] ... learn</p><p>oa ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... oat</p><p>The Letter B</p><p>silent ...thumb</p><p>b ... 'b' as in 'bit' ... [b] ...bone</p><p>The Letter C</p><p>c ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... casserole</p><p>c ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [ʧ] ... cello</p><p>ce ... 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... ice</p><p>ce ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... ocean</p><p>cc ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... with 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... accent</p><p>ch ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... choir, schedule</p><p>ch ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [ʧ] ... chance</p><p>ch ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... machine</p><p>chs ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... fuchsia</p><p>ci ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [ʧ] ... ancient</p><p>ci ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... special</p><p>ck ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... back</p><p>cz ... 't' as in 'time' ... [d] with 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... czar (one of two possible</p><p>pronunciations)</p><p>sch ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... schmuck</p><p>sc ... 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... science</p><p>sci ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... conscience</p><p>tch ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [ʧ] ... watch</p><p>The Letter D</p><p>d ... 'd' as in 'dime' ... [d] ... dark</p><p>d ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [ʤ] ... individual</p><p>dge ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [ʤ] ... judge</p><p>dj ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [ʤ] ... adjective</p><p>ed ... 't' as in 'time' ... [d] ... tripped</p><p>283</p><p>The Letter E</p><p>e ... silent ... there</p><p>ce ... 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... ice</p><p>ce ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... ocean</p><p>dge ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [ʤ] ... judge</p><p>e ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [ε] ... shed</p><p>e ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... be</p><p>e ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [əә] ... anthem</p><p>e ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [ɪ] ... pretty</p><p>e ... 'ah' as in 'father' ... [α] ... sergeant</p><p>e ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... suede, cafe</p><p>ea ...'ah' as in 'father' ... [α] ... heart</p><p>ea ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... heat</p><p>ea ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [ε] ... head</p><p>ea ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [əә] ... ocean</p><p>ea ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... great</p><p>ea[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [ɜ] ... learn</p><p>eau ... 'ew' as in 'few' ... [ju] ... beauty</p><p>eau ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... beau</p><p>ed ... 't' as in 'time' ... [t] ... tripped</p><p>ee ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [ɪ] ... been</p><p>ee ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... weep</p><p>ee ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... puree</p><p>ei ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... receive</p><p>ei ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... veil</p><p>eig ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [əә] ... foreign (can also be 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [ɪ])</p><p>eig ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... reign</p><p>eigh ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... weigh</p><p>eigh ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... height</p><p>eo ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [ε] ... leopard</p><p>eo ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... people</p><p>eu ... 'ew' as in 'few' ... [ju] ... feud</p><p>eu ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [əә] ... chauffeur</p><p>eu ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... sleuth</p><p>eu(r) ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [ɜ] ... chauffeur</p><p>ew ... 'ew' as in 'few' ... [ju] ... few</p><p>ew ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... blew</p><p>ey ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... key</p><p>ey ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... they</p><p>ie ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [ε] ... friend</p><p>ie ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... brief</p><p>ie ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... lie</p><p>oe ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... foe</p><p>284</p><p>oe ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [ʌ] ... does</p><p>oe ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... shoe</p><p>ue ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... blue</p><p>ye ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ...</p><p>bye</p><p>The Letter F</p><p>f ... 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... fear</p><p>f ... 'v' as in 'van' ... [v] ... of</p><p>f ... 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... off</p><p>The Letter G</p><p>silent ... sign</p><p>augh ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] ... daughter</p><p>dge ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [ʤ] ... judge</p><p>eig ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [əә] ... foreign (can also be 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [ɪ])</p><p>eig ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... reign</p><p>eigh ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... weigh</p><p>eigh ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... height</p><p>igh ...'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... sigh</p><p>g ... 'g' as in 'gap' ... [g] ... go</p><p>g ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [ʤ] ... gem</p><p>ge ... 'dj' as in 'measure' ... [ʒ] ... beige</p><p>gg ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [ʤ] ... exaggerate</p><p>ng ... 'ng' as in 'sing' ... [ŋ] ... ring</p><p>ng ... 'ng' as in 'sing' ... [ŋ] with 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... angst</p><p>ng ... 'ng' as in 'sing' ... [ŋ] with 'g' as in 'gap' ... [g] ... anger</p><p>ough ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... though</p><p>ough ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] ... thought</p><p>ough ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... through</p><p>ough ... 'ow' as in 'now' ... [aʊ] ... bough</p><p>ough ... 'ah' as in 'father' ... [α] OR 'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] with 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ...</p><p>cough</p><p>ough ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [ʌ] with 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... enough</p><p>The Letter H</p><p>silent ... honor, thyme, rhythm</p><p>augh ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] ... daughter</p><p>ch ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... choir</p><p>ch ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [ʧ] ... chance</p><p>ch ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... chartreuse</p><p>chs ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... fuchsia</p><p>h ... 'h' as in 'hi' ... [h] ... happy</p><p>igh ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... sigh</p><p>285</p><p>eigh ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... weigh</p><p>eigh ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... height</p><p>ough ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... though</p><p>ough ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] ... thought</p><p>ough ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... through</p><p>ough ... 'ow' as in 'now' ... [aʊ] ... bough</p><p>ough ... 'ah' as in 'father' ... [α] OR 'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] with 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ...</p><p>cough</p><p>ough ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [ʌ] with 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... enough</p><p>ph ... 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... phone</p><p>pph ... 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... sapphire</p><p>sch ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... schmuck</p><p>sh ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... shame</p><p>tch ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [ʧ] ... watch</p><p>th ... 'th' as in 'thin' ... [θ] ... thanks</p><p>th ... 'th' as in 'this' ... [ð] ... those</p><p>The Letter I</p><p>ai ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [ε] ... said</p><p>ai ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... aisle</p><p>ai ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... maid</p><p>ai ... 'aa' as in 'bat' ... [æ] ... plaid</p><p>ci ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [ʧ] ... ancient</p><p>ci ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... special</p><p>ei ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... receive</p><p>ei ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... veil</p><p>eig ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [əә] ... foreign (can also be 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [ɪ])</p><p>eig ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... reign</p><p>eigh ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... weigh</p><p>eigh ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... height</p><p>i ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [ɪ] ... him</p><p>i ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... time</p><p>i ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... police</p><p>i ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [əә] ... possible</p><p>i ... 'aa' as in 'bat' ... [æ] ... timbre</p><p>i ... 'y' as in 'yes' ... [j] ... senior</p><p>ie ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [ε] ... friend</p><p>ie ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... grieve</p><p>ie ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... lie</p><p>igh ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... sigh</p><p>i[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [ɜ] ... bird</p><p>oi ... 'oy' as in 'toy' ... [ɔɪ] ... moist</p><p>oi ... 'w' as in 'will' ... [w] with 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... choir</p><p>286</p><p>ui ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [ɪ] ... build</p><p>ui ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... juice</p><p>sci ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... conscience</p><p>si ... 'dj' as in 'measure' ... [ʒ] ... vision</p><p>ti ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... motion</p><p>ti ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [ʧ] ... mention</p><p>The Letter J</p><p>dj ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [ʤ] ... adjective</p><p>j ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [ʤ] ... joy</p><p>j ... 'y' as in 'yes' ... [j] ... fjord</p><p>j ... 'h' as in 'hi' ... [h] ... junta</p><p>The Letter K</p><p>silent ... know</p><p>ck ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... back</p><p>k ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... king</p><p>L silent ... palm</p><p>l ... 'l' as in 'lap' ... [l] ... love</p><p>ll ... 'l' as in 'lap' ... [l] ... million</p><p>M m ... 'm' as in 'map' ... [m] ... mine</p><p>mm ... 'm' as in 'map' ... [m] ... summer</p><p>N silent ... autumn</p><p>n ... 'n' as in 'nap' ... [n] ... name</p><p>n ... 'ng' as in 'sing' ... [ŋ] ... think</p><p>nn ... 'n' as in 'nap' ... [n] ... funny</p><p>ng ... 'ng' as in 'sing' ... [ŋ] ... ring</p><p>ng ... 'ng' as in 'sing' ... [ŋ] with 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... angst</p><p>ng ... 'ng' as in 'sing' ... [ŋ] with 'g' as in 'gap' ... [g] ... anger</p><p>The Letter O</p><p>eo ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [ε] ... leopard</p><p>eo ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... people</p><p>o ... 'w' as in 'will' ... [w] with 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [ʌ] ... one</p><p>o ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [ɪ] ... women</p><p>o ... 'ah' as in 'father' ... [α] ... body</p><p>o ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... do</p><p>o ... ‘uh’ as in ‘push’ ... [ʊ] ... wolf</p><p>o ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... go</p><p>o ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [ʌ] ... love</p><p>o ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [əә] ... bottom</p><p>oa ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... oat</p><p>oe ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... foe</p><p>287</p><p>oe ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [ʌ] ... does</p><p>oe ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... shoe</p><p>oi ... 'oy' as in 'toy' ... [ɔɪ] ... moist</p><p>oi ... 'w' as in 'will' ... [w] with 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... choir</p><p>oo ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... too</p><p>oo ... ‘uh’ as in ‘push’ ... [ʊ] ... wood</p><p>oo ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [ʌ] ... blood</p><p>oo ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... brooch</p><p>ou ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... you</p><p>ou ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [əә] ... jealous</p><p>ou ... ‘uh’ as in ‘push’ ... [ʊ] ... could</p><p>ou ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [ʌ] ... trouble</p><p>ou ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... soul</p><p>ou ... 'ow' as in 'now' ... [aʊ] ... round</p><p>ou[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [ɜ] ... journey</p><p>o[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [ɜ] ... word</p><p>ough ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... though</p><p>ough ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] ... thought</p><p>ough ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... through</p><p>ough ... 'ow' as in 'now' ... [aʊ] ... bough</p><p>ough ... 'ah' as in 'father' ... [α] OR 'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] with 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ...</p><p>cough</p><p>ough ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [ʌ] with 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... enough</p><p>ow ... 'ow' as in 'now' ... [aʊ] ... cow</p><p>ow ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... row</p><p>oy ... 'oy' as in 'toy' ... [ɔɪ] ... joy</p><p>wo ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... two</p><p>The Letter P</p><p>silent ... psychology, pneumonia</p><p>p ... 'p' as in 'pit' ... [p] ... pear</p><p>ph ... 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... phone</p><p>pph ... 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... sapphire</p><p>The Letter Q</p><p>q ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... quiet</p><p>The Letter R</p><p>r ... 'r' as in 'run' ... [ɹ] ... rat</p><p>The Letter S</p><p>silent ... island</p><p>chs ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... fuchsia</p><p>288</p><p>s ... 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... some</p><p>s ... 'z' as in 'zip' ... [z] ... his</p><p>s ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ]... sugar</p><p>s ... 'dj' as in 'measure' ... [ʒ] ... measure</p><p>sc ... 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... science</p><p>sch ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... schmuck</p><p>sci ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... conscience</p><p>si ... 'dj' as in 'measure' ... [ʒ] ... vision</p><p>sh ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... shame</p><p>ss ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ]... issue</p><p>ss ... 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ...miss</p><p>ss ... 'z' as in 'zip' ... [z] ... possession</p><p>The Letter T</p><p>silent ... fasten</p><p>t ... 't' as in 'time' ... [t] ... tap</p><p>t ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [ʧ] ... future, righteous</p><p>tch ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [ʧ] ... watch</p><p>th ... 'th' as in 'thin' ... [θ] ... thanks</p><p>th ... 'th' as in 'this' ... [ð] ... those</p><p>ti ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [ʃ] ... motion</p><p>ti ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [ʧ] ... mention</p><p>The Letter U</p><p>silent ... plague (it signals a hard G without being pronounced)</p><p>au ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] ... cause</p><p>au ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... gauge</p><p>au ... 'aa' as in 'bat' ... [æ] ... aunt</p><p>au ... 'oh' as in 'no'</p><p>... [oʊ] ... chauffeur</p><p>augh ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] ... daughter</p><p>eau ... 'ew' as in 'few' ... [ju] ... beauty</p><p>eau ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... beau</p><p>eu ... 'ew' as in 'few' ... [ju] ... feud</p><p>eu ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [əә] ... chauffeur</p><p>eu ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... sleuth</p><p>eu(r) ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [ɜ] ... chauffeur</p><p>ou ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [ʌ] ... trouble</p><p>ou ... ‘uh’ as in ‘push’ ... [ʊ] ... could</p><p>ou ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... you</p><p>ou ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [əә] ... jealous</p><p>ou ... ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... soul</p><p>ou ... 'ow' as in 'now' ... [aʊ] ... round</p><p>ough ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [oʊ] ... though</p><p>289</p><p>ough ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] ... thought</p><p>ough ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... through</p><p>ough ... 'ow' as in 'now' ... [aʊ] ... bough</p><p>ough ... 'ah' as in 'father' ... [α] OR 'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] with 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ...</p><p>cough</p><p>ough ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [ʌ] with 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... enough</p><p>ou[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [ɜ] ... journey</p><p>u ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [əә] ... autumn</p><p>u ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [ʌ] ... up</p><p>u ... 'ew' as in 'few' ... [ju] ... union</p><p>u ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [ε] ... bury</p><p>u ... ‘uh’ as in ‘push’ ... [ʊ] ... sugar</p><p>u ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... flute</p><p>u ... 'w' as in 'will' ... [w] ... quiet, suite</p><p>u ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [ɪ] ... minute</p><p>ue ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... blue</p><p>ui ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [ɪ] ... build</p><p>ui ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... juice</p><p>u[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [ɜ] ... burn</p><p>uy ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... buy</p><p>The Letter V</p><p>v ... 'v' as in 'van' ... [v] ... voice</p><p>The Letter W</p><p>silent ... answer, write</p><p>aw ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [ɔ] ... shawl</p><p>ew ... 'ew' as in 'few' ... [ju] ... few</p><p>ew ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... blew</p><p>ow ... 'ow' as in 'now' ... [aʊ] ... cow</p><p>ow ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [aʊ] ... row</p><p>w ... 'w' as in 'will' ... [w] ... wise</p><p>wo ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... two</p><p>The Letter X</p><p>x ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] with 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... ax, expert</p><p>x ... 'z' as in 'zip' ... [z] ... xylophone</p><p>x ... 'g' as in 'gap' ... [g] with 'z' as in 'zip' ... [z] ... exhibit</p><p>The Letter Y</p><p>ay ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [ε] ... says</p><p>ay ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... pay</p><p>ey ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... key</p><p>290</p><p>ey ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [eɪ] ... they</p><p>oy ... 'oy' as in 'toy' ... [ɔɪ] ... joy</p><p>uy ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... buy</p><p>y ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [ɪ] ... symbol</p><p>y ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [əә] ... syringe</p><p>y ... 'y' as in 'yes' ... [j] ... you</p><p>y ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... rhyme, my</p><p>y ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... melody</p><p>ye ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [aɪ] ... bye</p><p>y[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [ɜ] ... myrtle</p><p>The Letter Z</p><p>cz ... 't' as in 'time' ... [t] with 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... czar (one of two possible</p><p>pronunciations)</p><p>z ... 'z' as in 'zip' ... [z] ... lazy</p><p>z ... 'dj' as in 'measure' ... [ʒ] ... azure</p><p>z ... 't' as in 'time' ... [t] with 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] .. Nazi</p><p>z ... 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... ritz</p><p>zz ... 'z' as in 'zip' ... [z] ... buzz</p><p>Introduction</p><p>Tools for Learning</p><p>Chapter 1: Getting Started: Placement</p><p>Chapter 2: Introduction to Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation</p><p>Chapter 3: Vowels</p><p>[ʌ] UH as in BUTTER</p><p>[ɑ] AH as in FATHER</p><p>[ɔ] AW as in LAW</p><p>[æ] AA as in BAT</p><p>[ɛ] EH as in BED</p><p>[i] EE as in SHE</p><p>[ɪ] IH as in SIT</p><p>[u] OO as in BOO</p><p>[ʊ] as in PUSH</p><p>[ə] The Schwa</p><p>[ɜ] UR as in BIRD</p><p>Test Yourself</p><p>Chapter 4: Diphthongs</p><p>[oʊ] OH as in NO</p><p>[aʊ] OW as in NOW</p><p>[aɪ] AI as in BUY</p><p>[eɪ] AY as in SAY</p><p>[ɔɪ] OY as in TOY</p><p>[ju] EW as in FEW</p><p>Test Yourself</p><p>Chapter 5: Consonants</p><p>B [b] and P [p]</p><p>G [g] and K [k]</p><p>T [t] and D [d]</p><p>F [f] and V [v]</p><p>S [s] and Z [z]</p><p>SH [ʃ] and ZH [ʒ]</p><p>TH [θ] and [ð]</p><p>CH [ʧ] and JJ [dʒ]</p><p>M [m]</p><p>NG [ŋ]</p><p>N [n]</p><p>H [h]</p><p>Y [j]</p><p>W [w]</p><p>R [ɹ]</p><p>L [l]</p><p>Test Yourself</p><p>Chapter 6: Consonant Clusters</p><p>Focus: R Clusters</p><p>Focus: [kw] Cluster</p><p>Focus: S Clusters</p><p>Regular Plural Nouns</p><p>Regular -ed Endings</p><p>Chapter 7: Rhythm and Intonation: Multi-Syllable Words</p><p>3-Syllable Words</p><p>2-Syllable Words</p><p>Suffixes</p><p>Compound Words</p><p>Initials</p><p>Chapter 8: Linking</p><p>Vowel to Vowel</p><p>Consonant to Vowel</p><p>Consonant to Consonant</p><p>Chapter 9: Rhythm and Intonation: Stressed Words</p><p>Content Words</p><p>Sentence Position</p><p>Intonation of Questions</p><p>Intonation and Lists</p><p>Chapter 10: Unstressed Words and Words that Reduce</p><p>ARE, OR, FOR, and YOUR</p><p>AT and THAT</p><p>Dropping the H, THEM, and OF</p><p>CAN</p><p>TO, YOU, DO, and DOES</p><p>A, AN, and AND</p><p>THE</p><p>AS, WAS, and BECAUSE</p><p>SHOULD, WOULD, and COULD</p><p>Chapter 11: Contractions</p><p>N'T Contractions</p><p>CAN vs. CAN'T</p><p>TO BE and TO HAVE Contractions</p><p>Modal Verb Contractions</p><p>WILL Contractions</p><p>WOULD, HAD, and DID Contractions</p><p>Chapter 12: Gonna, Wanna, and Gotta</p><p>Gonna</p><p>Wanna</p><p>Gotta</p><p>Chapter 13: Putting it All Together</p><p>Directions</p><p>At a Restaurant</p><p>Shopping</p><p>At Work</p><p>Making Plans</p><p>Chapter 14: Continuing to Work</p><p>Appendix 1: Answers</p><p>Appendix 2: Video Index</p><p>Appendix 3: Audio Index</p><p>Appendix 4: Sound Chart</p><p>on it as you work through this section.</p><p>The vowels are where we get the length and shape of our longer, stressed</p><p>syllables, not the consonants. Keep this mind as you work. If you want to make</p><p>the word ‘mom’ longer, it should be like this: moooooom, not like this:</p><p>mmmmmmommmmm.</p><p>As you look in different resources, you will see some variation in the</p><p>vowels and diphthongs of American English. Pronunciation is not an</p><p>exact science, and there are differences of opinion!</p><p>In this section, there is an important element. Back in my Introduction, I made a</p><p>promise that this book would be different from others because we would learn</p><p>concepts together. You’re not just going to learn vowel sounds here, you’re</p><p>going to learn vowels in both forms: stressed and unstressed. On the audio</p><p>files, you’ll hear the stressed and unstressed sounds together — you’ll quickly be</p><p>able to identify how and why they sound different. The sample words will have</p><p>examples of the vowel in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Remember</p><p>23</p><p>when it’s unstressed to make it shorter, flatter in pitch, and with less air and</p><p>energy in the voice. Try to imitate exactly what you hear on the audio files.</p><p>There are eleven vowels in American English.</p><p>Listen: Audio 3.1 — Vowels.</p><p>Before you dive into the specifics of each vowel, listen to all vowel sounds</p><p>together. You’ll hear the sequence below twice. The sounds are in the stressed</p><p>form except for the schwa [əә], which is only unstressed. Notice how different it</p><p>sounds from the rest!</p><p>Audio 3.1 — Vowels</p><p>ʌ, ɑ, ɔ, æ, ɛ, i, ɪ, u, ʊ, əә, ɜ</p><p>engl.io/ad1</p><p>[ʌ] – The UH as iʌn BUTTER Vowel</p><p>Let’s start with the core vowel of American English, the ‘thinking’ vowel (“Uhh…”,</p><p>“Um…”). The UH as in BUTTER vowel.</p><p>http://engl.io/ad1</p><p>24</p><p>The jaw drops a bit for this sound, but the shape of the tongue doesn’t change</p><p>compared to the mouth at rest. It’s totally relaxed, with the tongue tip forward—</p><p>doing nothing! If you try to do anything with your tongue, it won’t be the right</p><p>sound. The cheeks, lips, and throat are completely relaxed. Because there is no</p><p>tension, the placement—resonance—is low, at the base of the neck and very</p><p>upper chest. Like all vowels, the soft palate is lifted to close the passage to the</p><p>nasal cavity, letting no air through. Some students have a hard time relaxing all</p><p>the way, and this vowel comes out more like the AH as in FATHER [ɑ] vowel.</p><p>We’ll compare the two after learning AH.</p><p>Video 3.1 — The UH as in BUTTER [ʌ] Vowel</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/ad4</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.2 — The UH as in BUTTER [ʌ] Vowel.</p><p>Look at the picture, and repeat the sound and words, keeping total relaxation.</p><p>Just drop your jaw—nothing else has to move! Pay attention to what this vowel</p><p>sounds like stressed and unstressed; it’s not the same. What you hear on the file</p><p>is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is [ʌ] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?</p><p>uh [ʌ] Stressed</p><p>other [ˈʌð əәɹ] Stressed</p><p>much [mʌtʃ] Stressed</p><p>love [lʌv] Stressed</p><p>uh [ʌ], uh [ʌ]* Stressed, Unstressed</p><p>untie [ʌnˈtaɪ] Unstressed</p><p>shotgun [ˈʃɑt￨ˌgʌn] Unstressed</p><p>http://engl.io/ad4</p><p>25</p><p>Audio 3.2 — The UH as in BUTTER [ʌ] Vowel</p><p>engl.io/ad8</p><p>*Notice how different the sound is when it’s in a stressed versus an</p><p>unstressed syllable. Apply everything you learned in the last section as</p><p>you work with the vowels and diphthongs: these sounds in stressed</p><p>syllables are longer, louder, have an up/down shape (intonation, or</p><p>melody) in the voice, use the full voice. These sounds in unstressed</p><p>syllables are shorter, flatter in pitch, quieter, and don’t use the whole</p><p>voice (less air is being used). If any of this is still unclear or confusing,</p><p>work with Chapter Two again.</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English. oe: does [dʌz] o:</p><p>love [lʌv]</p><p>oo: blood [blʌd]</p><p>ou: trouble [ˈtɹʌb əәl]</p><p>u: up [ʌp]</p><p>[ɑ] – The AH as in FATHER Vowel</p><p>http://engl.io/ad8</p><p>26</p><p>The jaw drops some for this sound, and the tongue presses down in the back</p><p>while the tip stays forward. Because of this tension in the tongue, the placement</p><p>lifts a little bit. Though still connected to the chest, the resonance is more in the</p><p>open space of the mouth. The lips are relaxed. Like all vowels, the soft palate is</p><p>lifted to close the passage to the nasal cavity, letting no air through.</p><p>Video 3.2 — The AH as in FATHER [ɑ] Vowel</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/ada</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.3 — The AH as in FATHER [ɑ] Vowel.</p><p>Look at the picture, and repeat the sound and words, keeping total relaxation in</p><p>the lips. Watch your jaw drop and feel your tongue press down in the back.</p><p>What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is [ɑ] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?</p><p>ah [ɑ] Stressed</p><p>father [ˈfɑð əәɹ] Stressed</p><p>body [ˈbɑd i] Stressed</p><p>lock [lɑk] Stressed</p><p>job [dʒɑb] Stressed</p><p>ah [ɑ], ah [ɑ] Stressed, Unstressed</p><p>October [ɑkˈtoʊ bəәɹ] Unstressed</p><p>http://engl.io/ada</p><p>27</p><p>Audio 3.3 — The AH as in FATHER [ɑ] Vowel</p><p>engl.io/adc</p><p>Some students can’t tell the difference between this sound and the sound we just</p><p>learned, the UH as in BUTTER [ʌ] vowel.</p><p>Can you hear the difference between AH [ɑ] and UH [ʌ]? If they sound the same</p><p>to you, you’re probably pronouncing them the same too, most likely both [ɑ]. To</p><p>get a more distinct [ʌ] vowel, think of bringing your tongue a little forward. That</p><p>might help the tongue relax—remember you want total relaxation for [ʌ]. Also,</p><p>the jaw will drop slightly less for [ʌ].</p><p>Video 3.3 — AH [ɑ] vs. UH [ʌ]</p><p>Compare the mouth position of these two sounds.</p><p>engl.io/adf</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.4 — AH [ɑ] vs. UH [ʌ].</p><p>Can you hear the difference in these minimal pairs? If not, don’t panic. Listen to</p><p>this file 10-20 times a day without trying to repeat. Most likely, in a few days,</p><p>you’ll start to hear the difference. What you hear on the file is organized in this</p><p>chart:</p><p>http://engl.io/adc</p><p>http://engl.io/adf</p><p>28</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Stressed or Unstressed?</p><p>ah [ɑ], uh [ʌ] Stressed</p><p>shot [ʃɑt], shut [ʃʌt] Stressed</p><p>gone [gɑn]*, gun [gʌn] Stressed</p><p>boss [bɑs], bus [bʌs] Stressed</p><p>crossed [kɹɑst]*, crust [kɹʌst] Stressed</p><p>*These words can be pronounced with either [ɑ] or [ɔ] — look for more</p><p>information on this in the next section, the AW as in LAW [ɔ] Vowel.</p><p>Audio 3.4 — AH [ɑ] vs. UH [ʌ]</p><p>engl.io/adh</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.5 — AH [ɑ] vs. UH [ʌ] Test.</p><p>You’ll hear five words or sounds in the minimal pairs below. You’re only hearing</p><p>one of the words (you’ll hear it twice), which one is it? Answers in the Answers</p><p>Appendix.</p><p>Audio 3.5 — AH [ɑ] vs. UH [ʌ] Test</p><p>1. [ɑ] or [ʌ]</p><p>2. song [ɑ] or sung [ʌ]</p><p>3. pop [ɑ] or pup [ʌ]</p><p>4. crossed [ɑ] or crust [ʌ]</p><p>5. robber [ɑ] or rubber [ʌ]</p><p>engl.io/adk</p><p>There are several audio files with minimal pairs in this book. Perhaps</p><p>there will be some pairs where you can’t hear the difference, the two</p><p>words in each pair sound exactly the same to you. Don’t worry, you’re not</p><p>the only one. I have had students master minimal pairs that, at first, they</p><p>couldn’t differentiate. They did it by listening only. Listen to the minimal</p><p>pairs over and over, 10 minutes a day, everyday. Be patient. There’s a</p><p>very good chance that in a few days or a week you’ll start to hear the</p><p>difference. When that happens, start repeating with the audio file.</p><p>http://engl.io/adh</p><p>http://engl.io/adk</p><p>29</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>a: father [ˈfɑ ðəәɹ]</p><p>aa: bazaar [bəәˈzɑɹ]</p><p>e: sergeant [ˈsɑɹ dʒəәnt]</p><p>ea: heart [hɑɹt]</p><p>ou: cough [kɑf]</p><p>o: body [ˈbɑd i]</p><p>[ɔ] – The AW as in LAW Vowel</p><p>This sound is interesting: many people don’t really use it. They just use the</p><p>AH</p><p>as in FATHER [ɑ] vowel instead. I myself don’t have a very distinct AW [ɔ]</p><p>vowel. Most of the time it just sounds like AH [ɑ]. AW [ɔ] as a distinct vowel is</p><p>most common on the east coast of the United States (except in the Southern</p><p>states).</p><p>30</p><p>To make the AW as in LAW [ɔ] vowel, the tongue lifts up and shifts back. The</p><p>lips come forward, flaring a bit. To aid this, you can think of pushing the corners</p><p>of the lips away from the face. Feel the cheeks come in a little bit. The</p><p>resonance is in the middle of the mouth.</p><p>Video 3.4 — The AW as in LAW [ɔ] Vowel</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/adm</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.6 — The AW as in LAW [ɔ] Vowel.</p><p>Listen to the AW as in LAW [ɔ] vowel. Watch yourself in a mirror: do the lips</p><p>look the same as in the picture? What you hear on the file is organized in this</p><p>chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is [ɔ] in a Stressed or Unstressed</p><p>syllable?</p><p>aw [ɔ] Stressed</p><p>saw [sɔ] Stressed</p><p>along [əәˈlɔŋ] Stressed</p><p>wrong [ɹɔŋ] Stressed</p><p>aw [ɔ], aw [ɔ] Stressed, Unstressed</p><p>recall [ˈɹi kɔl] (noun — the verb is [ɹɪˈkɔl]!) Unstressed</p><p>runoff [ˈɹʌn ɔf] Unstressed</p><p>Audio 3.6 — The AW as in LAW [ɔ] Vowel</p><p>engl.io/adp</p><p>There is something you need to know about AW [ɔ]: it’s not quite the same when</p><p>followed by the R sound, like in ‘quarter’ [ˈkwɔɹ dɜɹ], ‘war’ [wɔɹ], and ‘four’ [fɔɹ].</p><p>Most people will not pronounce these words with a pure AW [ɔ] vowel. Instead,</p><p>round the lips more, and pull the tongue up and back just a little bit more, so it is</p><p>more in the middle of the mouth.</p><p>http://engl.io/adm</p><p>http://engl.io/adp</p><p>31</p><p>Video 3.5 — How to Pronounce Quarter</p><p>This video points out how the AW [ɔ] vowel followed by an R</p><p>is different from a regular AW [ɔ] vowel. engl.io/ads</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>a: fall [fɔl]</p><p>au: cause [kɔz]</p><p>augh: daughter [ˈdɔd əәɹ]</p><p>aw: shawl [ʃɔl]</p><p>ough: thought [θɔt]</p><p>[æ] – The AA as in BAT Vowel</p><p>The jaw drops quite a bit for this vowel. The tongue tip stays forward, lightly</p><p>touching the back of the bottom front teeth. The back part of the tongue</p><p>http://engl.io/ads</p><p>32</p><p>stretches up. This can be a hard sound for students. One trick is to slightly lift</p><p>the top lip. When students focus on this, the tongue tends to lift as well.</p><p>Because there is some tension in the upper lip, the placement for this sound is</p><p>further forward in the face, with the resonance at the upper lip.</p><p>Video 3.6 — The AA as in BAT [æ] Vowel</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/adv</p><p>Video 3.7 — Lesson Excerpt: The AA as in BAT Vowel</p><p>In this video, I’m teaching my friend how to make a better</p><p>AA vowel. Look at the adjustments he has to make, and</p><p>practice doing the same.</p><p>engl.io/ady</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.7 — The AA as in BAT [æ] Vowel.</p><p>Listen to the AA as in BAT Vowel and repeat. Watch yourself in a mirror: drop</p><p>your jaw, lift your lip. Because the tongue lifts in the back, you should see a lot of</p><p>tongue. What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is [æ] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?</p><p>aa [æ] Stressed</p><p>pass [pæs] Stressed</p><p>master [ˈmæs təәɹ] Stressed</p><p>bad [bæd] Stressed</p><p>aa [æ], aa [æ] Stressed, Unstressed</p><p>racetrack [ˈɹeɪs ˌtɹæk] Unstressed</p><p>coatrack [ˈkoʊt￨ˌɹæk] Unstressed</p><p>Audio 3.7 — The AA as in BAT [æ] Vowel</p><p>engl.io/ae2</p><p>http://engl.io/adv</p><p>http://engl.io/ady</p><p>http://engl.io/ae2</p><p>33</p><p>Students who have a hard time with this sound often substitute the AH as in</p><p>FATHER [ɑ] vowel. But the tongue position is quite different: the back of the</p><p>tongue presses down for [ɑ] and lifts for [æ]. It also helps to think of lifting the top</p><p>lip just a bit for the AA [æ] vowel.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.8 — AH [ɑ] vs. AA [æ].</p><p>If you can’t hear the difference, just listen frequently until you can, then repeat.</p><p>What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Stressed or Unstressed?</p><p>ah [ɑ], aa [æ] Stressed</p><p>top [tɑp], tap [tæp] Stressed</p><p>mop [mɑp], map [mæp] Stressed</p><p>hot [hɑt], hat [hæt] Stressed</p><p>sock [sɑk], sack [sæk] Stressed</p><p>Audio 3.8 — AH [ɑ] vs. AA [æ]</p><p>engl.io/ae4</p><p>http://engl.io/ae4</p><p>34</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.9 — AH [ɑ] vs. AA [æ] Test.</p><p>You’ll hear five words or sounds in the minimal pairs below. You’re only hearing</p><p>one of the words (you’ll hear it twice), which one is it? Answers in the Answers</p><p>Appendix.</p><p>Audio 3.9 — AH [ɑ] vs. AA [æ] Test</p><p>1. [ɑ] or [æ]</p><p>2. bomb [ɑ] or bam [æ]</p><p>3. bog [ɑ] or bag [æ]</p><p>4. rock [ɑ] or rack [æ]</p><p>5. lost [ɑ] or last [æ]</p><p>engl.io/ae7</p><p>If you didn’t do well on the listening comprehension, remember not to worry. Go</p><p>back and listen to the minimal pairs audio file several times a day for several</p><p>days in a row, then try again.</p><p>The AA as in BAT [æ] vowel isn’t always the AA as in BAT [æ] vowel. What?</p><p>When this vowel is followed by one of the nasal consonants, N [n], M [m], or NG</p><p>[ŋ], it changes (this is different from British English, where it doesn’t change).</p><p>When you look one of these words up in the dictionary, you won’t find this</p><p>change. This is a case where IPA hasn’t caught up with the way most</p><p>Americans actually speak. So, you just have to know how the sound changes:</p><p>Sound Sequence Example Words What it really sounds like</p><p>Followed by [n]</p><p>[æn]</p><p>Followed by [m]</p><p>[æm]</p><p>band [bænd]</p><p>answer [ˈæn səәɹ]</p><p>began [bɪˈgæn]</p><p>exam [ɪgˈzæm]</p><p>camp [kæmp]</p><p>hammer [ˈhæm əәɹ]</p><p>Two sounds: first, the AA</p><p>vowel [æ], then an UH</p><p>sound, like [ʌ]. The</p><p>second sound should be</p><p>quicker than the first.</p><p>The ‘uh’ part of the</p><p>sound happens as the</p><p>tongue relaxes in the</p><p>back.</p><p>Pronounce [æn] as</p><p>[æʌn].</p><p>Pronounce [æm] as</p><p>[æʌm].</p><p>http://engl.io/ae7</p><p>35</p><p>Followed by [ŋ]</p><p>[æŋ]</p><p>anger [ˈæŋ gəәɹ]</p><p>hang [hæŋ]</p><p>thanks [θæŋks]</p><p>(Note: the letter N</p><p>makes the NG [ŋ] sound</p><p>if it’s followed by a K)</p><p>The AY as in SAY [eɪ]</p><p>diphthong. The</p><p>beginning of ‘sank’</p><p>[sæŋk] sounds like the</p><p>word ‘say’ [seɪ].</p><p>Pronounce [æŋ] as</p><p>[eɪŋ].</p><p>Video 3.8 — The AA as in BAT Vowel followed by N, M,</p><p>and NG</p><p>Learn how the AA sound changes when it’s followed by a</p><p>nasal consonant.</p><p>engl.io/ae9</p><p>Video 3.9 — English in Real Life: Easter</p><p>This video uses the word ‘ham’ as an example to study, in</p><p>real life, how the AA vowel changes when followed by a</p><p>nasal consonant.</p><p>engl.io/aeb</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.10 — AA [æ] followed by Nasal Consonants.</p><p>You’ll hear each word three times. The middle time is in slow motion. Repeat</p><p>the slow motion word as well. What you hear on the file is organized in this</p><p>chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 3 times, 2nd time slowly) Sounds like</p><p>ban [bæn] [bæʌn]</p><p>exam [ɪgˈzæm] [ɪgˈzæʌm]</p><p>thanks [θænks] [θeɪnks]</p><p>Audio 3.10 — AA [æ] followed by Nasal Consonants</p><p>engl.io/aed</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>a: bat [bæt]</p><p>http://engl.io/ae9</p><p>http://engl.io/aeb</p><p>http://engl.io/aed</p><p>36</p><p>au: aunt [ænt]</p><p>ai: plaid [plæd]</p><p>i: timbre [ˈtæm bəәɹ]</p><p>[ɛ] – The EH as in BED Vowel</p><p>The jaw drops a good bit for this vowel. The tongue tip is forward and down,</p><p>lightly touching the back of the bottom front teeth. The middle/front part of the</p><p>tongue lifts towards the roof of the mouth. Make the middle of the tongue wider</p><p>as it lifts. This sound resonates in the middle of the mouth, but it’s still connected</p><p>to the core placement in the upper chest and lower neck.</p><p>Video 3.10 — The EH as in BED [ɛ] Vowel</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/aee</p><p>http://engl.io/aee</p><p>37</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.11 — The EH as in BED [ɛ] Vowel.</p><p>Listen to the EH as in BED Vowel and repeat. Watch yourself in a mirror: does</p><p>your jaw drop? What you hear on the file is organized</p><p>in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is [ɛ] in a Stressed or Unstressed</p><p>syllable?</p><p>eh [ɛ] Stressed</p><p>ten [tɛn] Stressed</p><p>special [ˈspɛʃ əәl] Stressed</p><p>left [lɛft] Stressed</p><p>eh [ɛ], eh [ɛ] Stressed, Unstressed</p><p>embrace [ɛmˈbɹeɪs] Unstressed</p><p>employ [ɛmˈplɔɪ] Unstressed</p><p>Audio 3.11 — The EH as in BED [ɛ] Vowel</p><p>engl.io/aeg</p><p>Some students have a hard time hearing the difference between EH [ɛ] and AA</p><p>[æ]. Can you hear it? One thing that helps is to focus on what you can see: the</p><p>lips. Let them be very relaxed for EH. You might even want to rest your fingertips</p><p>on your upper lip to help it relax. Do the opposite for AA: pull the top lip up.</p><p>Think of making a rectangle shape with your lips.</p><p>http://engl.io/aeg</p><p>38</p><p>Video 3.11 — EH [ɛ] vs. AA [æ]</p><p>This video compares the mouth positions of these two</p><p>sounds. engl.io/aei</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.12 — AA [æ] vs. EH [ɛ].</p><p>If you can’t hear the difference, just listen frequently until you can, then repeat.</p><p>What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Stressed or Unstressed?</p><p>aa [æ], eh [ɛ] Stressed</p><p>bat [bæt], bet [bɛt] Stressed</p><p>gas [gæs], guess [gɛs] Stressed</p><p>sad [sæd], said [sɛd] Stressed</p><p>slapped [slæpt], slept [slɛpt] Stressed</p><p>Audio 3.12 — AA [æ] vs. EH [ɛ]</p><p>engl.io/aek</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.13 — EH [ɛ] vs. AA [æ] Test.</p><p>You’ll hear five words or sounds in the minimal pairs below. You’re only hearing</p><p>one of the words (you’ll hear it twice), which one is it? Answers in the Answers</p><p>Appendix.</p><p>Audio 3.13 — EH [ɛ] vs. AA [æ] Test</p><p>1. [ɛ] or [æ]</p><p>2. head [ɛ] or had [æ]</p><p>3. leapt [ɛ] or lapped [æ]</p><p>4. guess [ɛ] or gas [æ]</p><p>5. kettle [ɛ] or cattle [æ]</p><p>engl.io/aen</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>a: share [ʃɛəәɹ]</p><p>http://engl.io/aei</p><p>http://engl.io/aek</p><p>http://engl.io/aen</p><p>39</p><p>ai: said [sɛd]</p><p>ay: says [sɛz]</p><p>ea: head [hɛd]</p><p>e: shed [ʃɛd]</p><p>eo: leopard [ˈlɛp əәɹd]</p><p>ie: friend [fɹɛnd]</p><p>u: bury [ˈbɛɹ i]</p><p>[i] – The EE as in SHE Vowel</p><p>This vowel involves only a little bit of jaw drop. The tongue tip stays behind the</p><p>bottom front teeth, and the middle/front part of the tongue arches up towards the</p><p>roof of the mouth. It doesn’t touch the roof of the mouth, but it is very close,</p><p>diminishing the space between the tongue and the roof of the mouth. Do this</p><p>with as little jaw and tongue tension as possible.</p><p>40</p><p>The corners of the lips pull a little wide, sort of like a smile—they’re not quite</p><p>relaxed. The tongue position brings the resonance up a little bit. Feel the</p><p>vibration between your tongue and hard palate. But, as always, keep it</p><p>connected to that lower placement at the base of the neck and upper chest.</p><p>Video 3.12 — The EE as in SHE [i] Vowel</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/aer</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.14 — The EE as in SHE [i] Vowel.</p><p>Watch yourself in a mirror: do the corners of your lips pull out? Feel your tongue</p><p>arching up towards the roof of the mouth. What you hear on the file is organized</p><p>in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is [i] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?</p><p>ee [i] Stressed</p><p>need [nid] Stressed</p><p>thirteen [θɜɹˈtin] Stressed</p><p>keep [kip] Stressed</p><p>ee [i], ee [i] Stressed, Unstressed</p><p>coffee [ˈkɔ fi] Unstressed</p><p>busy [ˈbɪz i] Unstressed</p><p>Audio 3.14 — The EE as in SHE [i] Vowel</p><p>engl.io/aet</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>ay: quay [ki]</p><p>ea: heat [hit]</p><p>e: be [bi]</p><p>ee: weep [wip]</p><p>ei: receive [ɹɪˈsiv]</p><p>eo: people [ˈpi pəәl]</p><p>http://engl.io/aer</p><p>http://engl.io/aet</p><p>41</p><p>ey: key [ki]</p><p>ie: brief [bɹif]</p><p>i: police [pəәˈlis]</p><p>y: busy [ˈbɪz i]</p><p>[ɪ] – The IH as in SIT Vowel</p><p>This is one of the hardest sounds for non-native speakers. Many try to make [ɪ],</p><p>but end up making [i], [ɛ], or [eɪ] instead.</p><p>The jaw drops a bit more than for the EE as in SHE [i], which means the arch of</p><p>the tongue isn’t as close to the roof of the mouth. The tongue tip is forward,</p><p>lightly touching the back of the bottom front teeth, and the front/mid part lifts up</p><p>towards the roof of the mouth. The lips, and the corners of the lips, stay relaxed.</p><p>For the EE as in SHE vowel, the vibration is along the front half of the hard</p><p>palate. For the IH as in SIT [ɪ] vowel, it’s more in the middle of the mouth.</p><p>42</p><p>Video 3.13 — The IH as in SIT [ɪ] Vowel</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/aex</p><p>Tip: start with the EE as in SHE [i] vowel, then create a little more space</p><p>between the tongue and the roof of the mouth by dropping your jaw just a bit</p><p>more.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.15 — The IH as in SIT [ɪ] Vowel.</p><p>Listen to the IH vowel. Watch yourself in a mirror: does you jaw drop a little?</p><p>Are your lips relaxed? What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is [ɪ] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?</p><p>ih [ɪ] Stressed</p><p>shift [ʃɪft] Stressed</p><p>dinner [ˈdɪn əәɹ] Stressed</p><p>quit [kwɪt] Stressed</p><p>ih [ɪ], ih [ɪ] Stressed, Unstressed</p><p>instead [ɪnˈstɛd] Unstressed</p><p>office [ˈɔ fɪs] Unstressed</p><p>Audio 3.15 — The IH as in SIT [ɪ] Vowel</p><p>engl.io/aez</p><p>Many students struggle with the difference between EE [i] and IH [ɪ]. Can you</p><p>hear the difference? Remember for the EE [i] vowel, the tongue is very close to</p><p>the roof of the mouth and the corners of the lips pull wide. For the IH [ɪ] vowel,</p><p>the lips are relaxed and the jaw drops a little more, allowing a little more space</p><p>between the arch of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.</p><p>http://engl.io/aex</p><p>http://engl.io/aez</p><p>43</p><p>Video 3.14 — EE [i] vs. IH [ɪ]</p><p>Compare the mouth positions of these two sounds.</p><p>engl.io/af2</p><p>Video 3.15 — EE, IH, and Vowel Length</p><p>Some people think of these vowels in terms of how long they</p><p>are. I don’t think that’s important. What’s more important is</p><p>whether or not the sound is in a stressed or unstressed</p><p>syllable.</p><p>engl.io/af3</p><p>Video 3.16 — Beach vs. Bitch</p><p>Bitch, shit. These are both cuss words in American English,</p><p>but they sound so much like the everyday words ‘beach’ and</p><p>‘sheet’. This video explains the differences in these word</p><p>pairs.</p><p>engl.io/af6</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.16 — IH [ɪ] vs. EE [i].</p><p>If you can’t hear the difference, just listen frequently until you can, then repeat.</p><p>What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>http://engl.io/af2</p><p>http://engl.io/af3</p><p>http://engl.io/af6</p><p>44</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Stressed or Unstressed?</p><p>ih [ɪ], ee [i] Stressed</p><p>bin [bɪn], bean [bin] Stressed</p><p>fist [fɪst], feast [fist] Stressed</p><p>rich [ɹɪʧ], reach [ɹiʧ] Stressed</p><p>ship [ʃɪp], sheep [ʃip] Stressed</p><p>Audio 3.16 — IH [ɪ] vs. EE [i]</p><p>engl.io/af8</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.17 — IH [ɪ] vs. EE [i] Test.</p><p>You’ll hear five words or sounds in the minimal pairs below. You’re only hearing</p><p>one of the words (you’ll hear it twice), which one is it? Answers in the Answers</p><p>Appendix.</p><p>Audio 3.17 — IH [ɪ] vs. EE [i] Test</p><p>1. [ɪ] or [i]</p><p>2. hill [ɪ] or heal [i]</p><p>3. it [ɪ] or eat [i]</p><p>4. living [ɪ] or leaving [i]</p><p>5. rim [ɪ] or ream [i]</p><p>engl.io/afb</p><p>Some students make the EH as in BED [ɛ] vowel instead of the IH as in SIT [ɪ]</p><p>vowel. If you think you might be making the EH as in BED [ɛ] vowel instead, try</p><p>dropping your jaw a little less, and lift your tongue more in the front.</p><p>http://engl.io/af8</p><p>http://engl.io/afb</p><p>45</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.18 — EH [ɛ] vs. IH [ɪ].</p><p>If you can’t hear the difference, just listen frequently until you can, then repeat.</p><p>What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Stressed or Unstressed?</p><p>eh [ɛ], ih [ɪ] Stressed</p><p>when [wɛn], win [wɪn] Stressed</p><p>ten [tɛn], tin [tɪn] Stressed</p><p>bed [bɛd], bid [bɪd] Stressed</p><p>mess [mɛs], miss [mɪs] Stressed</p><p>Audio 3.18 — EH [ɛ] vs. IH [ɪ]</p><p>engl.io/afc</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.19 — EH [ɛ] vs. IH [ɪ]</p><p>Test.</p><p>You’ll hear five words or sounds in the minimal pairs below. You’re only hearing</p><p>one of the words (you’ll hear it twice), which one is it? Answers in the Answers</p><p>Appendix.</p><p>http://engl.io/afc</p><p>46</p><p>Audio 3.19 — EH [ɛ] vs. IH [ɪ] Test</p><p>1. [ɛ] or [ɪ]</p><p>2. strep [ɛ] or strip [ɪ]</p><p>3. wet [ɛ] or wit [ɪ]</p><p>4. well [ɛ] or will [ɪ]</p><p>5. net [ɛ] or knit [ɪ]</p><p>engl.io/aff</p><p>Some students make the AY as in SAY [eɪ] diphthong instead of the IH as in SIT</p><p>[ɪ] vowel. In the next section on Diphthongs, you’ll learn how the AY as in SAY</p><p>[eɪ] diphthong is different from the IH as in SIT [ɪ] vowel.</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>a: private [ˈpɹaɪ vɪt]</p><p>e: pretty [prɪd i]</p><p>ee: been [bɪn]</p><p>i: him [hɪm]</p><p>ui: build [bɪld]</p><p>o: women [ˈwɪm ɪn]</p><p>u: minute [ˈmɪn ɪt]</p><p>y: symbol [ˈsɪm bəәl]</p><p>http://engl.io/aff</p><p>47</p><p>[u] – The OO Vowel</p><p>It wasn’t until I had been teaching pronunciation for a while that I realized—hold</p><p>on!—the OO as in BOO [u] vowel is not a pure vowel. This vowel sounds really</p><p>American when it’s more about the movement into the position than the position</p><p>itself. Start relaxed, then bring the corners of the lips together so the lips round.</p><p>The tongue tip stays forward, and the back part of the tongue lifts.</p><p>The movement from relaxed lips to rounded lips is important. Let’s take the word</p><p>‘rude’ [ɹud]. The R consonant has very round lips when it’s at the beginning of a</p><p>word. It looks a lot like the lip position for the OO as in BOO vowel. But if we go</p><p>from the R sound to the OO vowel without moving our lips, it sounds funny. We</p><p>have to relax them a little bit after the R, so we can have the movement into the</p><p>lip position again for the OO vowel. It can help to think of this as being a</p><p>diphthong [ɪu], where the [ɪ] is very light. We’ll learn more about diphthongs in</p><p>48</p><p>the next section, but the key point about diphthongs is they involve a movement</p><p>of the mouth, not a stationary position.</p><p>The vibration for this sound moves forward a little bit because the lips move, but</p><p>you can just think of it as being in the middle of the mouth.</p><p>Video 3.17 — The OO as in BOO [u] Vowel</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/afh</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.20 — The OO as in BOO [u] Vowel.</p><p>Listen to the OO vowel. Watch yourself in a mirror. Do your lips start more</p><p>relaxed so they can move into the more rounded lip position? What you hear on</p><p>the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is [u] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?</p><p>oo [u] Stressed</p><p>blue [blu] Stressed</p><p>stupid [ˈstu pɪd] Stressed</p><p>shoes [ʃuz] Stressed</p><p>oo [u], oo [u] Stressed, unstressed</p><p>argue [ˈɑɹ gju] Unstressed</p><p>issue [ˈɪʃ u] Unstressed</p><p>Audio 3.20 — The OO as in BOO [u] Vowel</p><p>engl.io/afk</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>eu: sleuth [sluθ]</p><p>ew: blew [blu]</p><p>o: do [du]</p><p>oe: shoe [ʃu]</p><p>oo: too [tu]</p><p>http://engl.io/afh</p><p>http://engl.io/afk</p><p>49</p><p>ou: you [ju]</p><p>ough: through [θɹu]</p><p>u: flute [flut]</p><p>ue: blue [blu]</p><p>ui: juice [dʒus]</p><p>wo: two [tu]</p><p>[ʊ] – The UH as in PUSH Vowel</p><p>The tongue lifts in the back, towards the soft palate, for this vowel. The tongue</p><p>tip pulls slightly back so it’s not quite touching the back of the bottom front teeth.</p><p>The lips aren’t completely relaxed: the corners of the mouth come in a little so</p><p>the lips flare and push away from the face.</p><p>50</p><p>Video 3.18 — The UH as in PUSH [ʊ] Vowel</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position. Note: This video uses the example word ‘pull’, as</p><p>in, the ‘uh’ as in ‘pull’ vowel. (It’s the same vowel.)</p><p>engl.io/afm</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.21 — The UH as in PUSH [ʊ] Vowel.</p><p>Listen to the UH as in PUSH vowel. Watch yourself in a mirror: are your lips</p><p>pushing out? What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is [ʊ] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?</p><p>uh [ʊ] Stressed</p><p>book [bʊk] Stressed</p><p>looking [ˈlʊk ɪŋ] Stressed</p><p>stood [stʊd] Stressed</p><p>uh [ʊ] , uh [ʊ] Stressed, Unstressed</p><p>childhood [ˈʧaɪld hʊd] Unstressed</p><p>goodbye [gʊdˈbaɪ] Unstressed</p><p>Audio 3.21 — The UH as in PUSH [ʊ] Vowel</p><p>engl.io/afp</p><p>Some students make an OO as in BOO [u] vowel instead of the UH as in PUSH</p><p>[ʊ] vowel. The lips round much less for this vowel than for the OO as in BOO [u]</p><p>vowel. Listen to the minimal pairs. Relax your lips more for the first sound, then</p><p>round them more for the second.</p><p>http://engl.io/afm</p><p>http://engl.io/afp</p><p>51</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.22 — UH [ʊ] vs. OO [u].</p><p>If you can’t hear the difference, just listen frequently until you can, then repeat.</p><p>What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Stressed or Unstressed?</p><p>uh [ʊ], oo [u] Stressed</p><p>stood [stʊ], stewed [stud] Stressed</p><p>pull [pʊl], pool [pul] Stressed</p><p>look [lʊk], Luke [luk] Stressed</p><p>soot [sʊt], suit [sut] Stressed</p><p>Audio 3.22 — UH [ʊ] vs. OO [u]</p><p>engl.io/afs</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.23 — UH [ʊ] vs. OO [u] Test.</p><p>You’ll hear five words or sounds in the minimal pairs below. You’re only hearing</p><p>one of the words (you’ll hear it twice), which one is it? Answers in the Answers</p><p>Appendix.</p><p>http://engl.io/afs</p><p>52</p><p>Audio 3.23 — UH [ʊ] vs. OO [u] Test</p><p>1. [ʊ] or [u]</p><p>2. wood or wooed</p><p>3. full or fool</p><p>4. cookie or kooky</p><p>5. pull or pool</p><p>engl.io/afv</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>o: wolf [wʊlf]</p><p>oo: wood [wʊd]</p><p>ou: could [kʊd]</p><p>u: sugar [ˈʃʊg əәɹ]</p><p>[əә] – The UH as in SUPPLY Vowel (or, The Schwa)</p><p>http://engl.io/afv</p><p>53</p><p>This is another vowel that is, unfortunately, not straightforward. On its own, it’s</p><p>very clear: the lips part but there’s almost no jaw drop, and the tongue stays very</p><p>relaxed, low in the mouth, with the tip forward, lightly touching the back of the</p><p>bottom front teeth. Part your lips and make the quickest, simplest sound without</p><p>moving anything else.</p><p>This sound is only in unstressed syllables with a few exceptions, like bear [bɜəәɹ],</p><p>where it is not the main vowel and is absorbed by the following consonant. In</p><p>these cases you don’t even need to think about making a separate schwa sound,</p><p>it will blend in from sound to sound. Think of it like this: [bɜɹ]. So, think of the</p><p>schwa as only being unstressed. As you know, unstressed syllables are lower in</p><p>pitch and have less energy in the voice. This may help you connect to the</p><p>placement in the upper chest.</p><p>This sound will be mentioned a lot in Chapter 10. Many words that reduce</p><p>involve changing the vowel to the schwa.</p><p>Video 3.19 — The UH as in SUPPLY [əә] (Schwa) Vowel</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position.</p><p>engl.io/afx</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.24 — The UH as in SUPPLY [əә] Vowel (Schwa).</p><p>Listen to the schwa. Just part your lips and make the quickest, simplest sound</p><p>without moving anything else. What you hear on the file is organized in this</p><p>chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is [əә] in a Stressed or Unstressed</p><p>syllable?</p><p>uh [əә] Unstressed</p><p>again [əәˈgɛn] Unstressed</p><p>China [ˈʧaɪ nəә] Unstressed</p><p>extra [ˈɛk stɹəә] Unstressed</p><p>visa [ˈvi zəә] Unstressed</p><p>http://engl.io/afx</p><p>54</p><p>Audio 3.24 — The UH as in SUPPLY [əә] (Schwa) Vowel</p><p>engl.io/ag1</p><p>The above examples all have a clear schwa. The schwa is different when it’s</p><p>followed by an M [m], N [N], L [l], or R [ɹ] sound. These are called syllabic</p><p>consonants, which means they take over the whole syllable. That means you</p><p>don’t need to make a schwa sound at all. You’ll see it in the IPA, but all you have</p><p>to do is make the following consonant, M, N, L, or R. Examples: system [ˈsɪs</p><p>təәm] — go straight from the T to the M. Open [ˈoʊp əәn] — go straight from the P</p><p>to the N. Pencil [ˈpɛn səәl] — go straight from the S</p><p>to the Dark L. Mother [ˈmʌð</p><p>əәɹ] — go straight from the TH to the R.</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.25 — Syllabic Consonants.</p><p>Listen to the examples on the audio file. Notice there is no separate sound for</p><p>the schwa, it gets absorbed by the consonant after it. Practice the unstressed</p><p>syllable on its own, not just as part of the word. What you hear on the file is</p><p>organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (2x) Is [əә] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?</p><p>-tom [dəәm], bottom [ˈbɑd əәm] Unstressed</p><p>con- [kəәn], control [kəәnˈtɹoʊl] Unstressed</p><p>-ple [pəәl], people [ˈpi pəәl] Unstressed</p><p>syr- [səәɹ], syringe [səәˈɹɪndʒ] Unstressed</p><p>Audio 3.25 — Syllabic Consonants</p><p>engl.io/ag3</p><p>Syllabic consonants and the schwa will come up a lot in this book. Many words</p><p>that reduce involve changing the vowel to the schwa sound. Be prepared to dive</p><p>into this concept in Chapter 10.</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>a: about [əәˈbaʊt]</p><p>ea: ocean [ˈoʊ ʃəәn]</p><p>e: anthem [ˈæn θəәm]</p><p>eu: chauffeur (verb) [ˈʃoʊ fəәɹ]</p><p>http://engl.io/ag1</p><p>http://engl.io/ag3</p><p>55</p><p>i: possible [ˈpɑs əә bəәl]</p><p>o: bottom [ˈbɑd əәm]</p><p>ou: jealous [ˈdʒɛl əәs]</p><p>u: autumn [ˈɔ dəәm]</p><p>y: syringe [səәˈɹɪndʒ]</p><p>[ɜ] – The UR as in BIRD Sound</p><p>This vowel is interesting because it’s basically the R consonant acting like a</p><p>vowel. It is always followed by the R consonant, but you never make first the</p><p>vowel then the R consonant—it’s all the same sound! So here we have two</p><p>56</p><p>symbols in IPA, but you just need to make one sound: rrrrr. This is different from</p><p>British English, where it is a sound that is independent of the R consonant.</p><p>The most common mistake with this sound is not lifting the tongue enough. Then</p><p>it sounds like a vowel sound plus the R consonant, but remember we just want</p><p>one sound for these two symbols, rrrrr. It should be quite high in the mouth,</p><p>pulled back and up so the tip isn’t touching anything. For some people, the sides</p><p>of the tongue touch the sides of the roof of the mouth, or the side teeth, at about</p><p>the front-to-back midpoint. Feel the vibration in the front of the mouth, between</p><p>the front of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. The corners of the lips come in</p><p>so the lips can flare and push away from the face.</p><p>Video 3.20 — The UR as in BIRD Vowel</p><p>See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well</p><p>as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth</p><p>position. Note: This video uses the example word ‘her’, as</p><p>in, the ‘ur’ as in ‘her’ vowel. (It’s the same vowel when ‘her’</p><p>is stressed.)</p><p>engl.io/ag5</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.26 — The UR as in BIRD [ɜ] Vowel.</p><p>Listen to the UR vowel. Hold it out—it should be just one sound. Watch yourself</p><p>in a mirror: Are your lips flared? What you hear on the file is organized in this</p><p>chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is [ɜɹ] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?</p><p>ur [ɜɹ] Stressed</p><p>bird [bɜɹd] Stressed</p><p>early [ˈɜɹ li] Stressed</p><p>Nurse [nɜɹs] Stressed</p><p>ur [ɜɹ] , ur [ɜɹ] Stressed, unstressed</p><p>research [ˈri sɜɹʧ] Unstressed</p><p>thirteen [θɜɹˈtin] Unstressed</p><p>Audio 3.26 — The UR as in BIRD [ɜ] Vowel</p><p>engl.io/ag8</p><p>http://engl.io/ag5</p><p>http://engl.io/ag8</p><p>57</p><p>If this sound is still confusing, don’t worry. We’ll be studying the consonant</p><p>version of it, R, in the next two chapters, Consonants and Consonant Clusters.</p><p>You’ll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.</p><p>ea: learn [lɜɹn]</p><p>eu: chauffeur [ʃoʊˈfɜɹ] (noun)</p><p>i: bird [bɜɹd]</p><p>ou: journey [ˈdʒɜɹ ni]</p><p>o: word [wɜɹd]</p><p>u: burn [bɜɹn]</p><p>y: myrtle [ˈmɜɹ dəәl]</p><p>I am not an expert in British English pronunciation. The standard is known as RP</p><p>(Received Pronunciation). But I have pointed out a couple of differences</p><p>between American and British pronunciation in this chapter on vowels. If you</p><p>want more information, watch this video I made with a British English teacher on</p><p>the difference in vowel and diphthong sounds.</p><p>Video 3.21 — Differences between British and American</p><p>Vowels</p><p>engl.io/agb</p><p>http://engl.io/agb</p><p>58</p><p>Test Yourself on the Vowels of American English</p><p>Test yourself: Non-Audio 3.1 — Match the Sound with the Symbol.</p><p>Make sure you’re familiar with the symbols of the American vowels. Answers in</p><p>the Answers Appendix.</p><p>1. UH as in BUTTER</p><p>2. AH as in FATHER</p><p>3. AW as in LAW</p><p>4. AA as in BAT</p><p>5. EH as in BED</p><p>6. EE as in SHE</p><p>7. IH as in SIT</p><p>8. OO as in BOO</p><p>9. UH as in PUSH</p><p>10. UH as in SUPPLY (schwa)</p><p>11. UR as in HER</p><p>a. [u]</p><p>b. [i]</p><p>c. [ɜ]</p><p>d. [ɛ]</p><p>e. [ʊ]</p><p>f. [æ]</p><p>g. [ɑ]</p><p>h. [ʌ]</p><p>i. [ɔ]</p><p>j. [ɪ]</p><p>k. [əә]</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.27 — Vowel Test.</p><p>What vowel sound do you hear? All of the vowels are on the audio file once.</p><p>Write down the vowels below in the order you hear them, then listen again to</p><p>check yourself. Remember, it’s not important to have a distinctly different AH as</p><p>in FATHER and AW as in LAW sound, so don’t worry if they sound the same to</p><p>you! Answers in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>a. UH as in BUTTER</p><p>b. AH as in FATHER</p><p>c. AW as in LAW</p><p>d. AA as in BAT</p><p>e. EH as in BED</p><p>f. EE as in SHE</p><p>g. IH as in SIT</p><p>h. OO as in BOO</p><p>i. UH as in PUSH</p><p>j. UH as in SUPPLY (Schwa)</p><p>k. UR as in HER</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.27 — Vowel Test</p><p>engl.io/agc</p><p>http://engl.io/agc</p><p>59</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.28 — Stressed or Unstressed?</p><p>You’ll hear 10 vowels. Is each stressed or unstressed? It doesn’t matter what</p><p>vowel you hear, just identify if it seems longer and more fully pronounced, with an</p><p>up-down curve in the voice (stressed), or shorter and flatter, with less energy in</p><p>the voice (unstressed). Answers in the Answers Appendix.</p><p>a. Stressed b. Unstressed</p><p>Test Yourself: Audio 3.28 — Stressed or Unstressed?</p><p>engl.io/age</p><p>Good for you — you’ve studied the American English vowels while keeping</p><p>stress in mind. Let’s move on to Diphthongs.</p><p>http://engl.io/age</p><p>60</p><p>Chapter 4</p><p>Diphthongs</p><p>A diphthong is two vowel sounds together. Some of the sounds are American</p><p>English vowels on their own, like [ɪ] and [ʊ]. But, I’ve found they’re not quite the</p><p>same in diphthongs as they are when they are pure vowels.</p><p>The mouth position matters: what defines the diphthong is that there are two</p><p>different sounds. This means there has to be a movement, going from a starting</p><p>position to an ending position. We talked about this a little already with the OO</p><p>as in BOO [u] vowel, which isn’t quite pure but involves a moment into and out of</p><p>a mouth position.</p><p>Listen: Audio 4.1 — Diphthongs.</p><p>Before you dive into the specifics of each diphthong, listen to all diphthong</p><p>sounds together. You’ll hear the sequence below twice. The sounds are all</p><p>stressed in this audio file.</p><p>Audio 4.1 — Diphthongs</p><p>oʊ, aʊ, aɪ, eɪ, ɔɪ, ju</p><p>engl.io/aha</p><p>http://engl.io/aha</p><p>61</p><p>[oʊ] – The OH as in NO Diphthong</p><p>The jaw drops for the beginning position, and the lips round for the ending</p><p>position (with the jaw being less dropped). The lips might round some for the</p><p>beginning position, but what’s important is that they round even more in the</p><p>ending position. The tongue shifts back a little bit at the beginning, and the back</p><p>lifts in the ending position. The back of the tongue is more lifted here than in the</p><p>pure [ʊ] vowel (like in the word ‘push’ [pʊʃ ]). Focus on the movement of the jaw:</p><p>62</p><p>drop it more for the beginning of the diphthong, and let it relax up for the ending</p><p>position as the lips round.</p><p>Video 4.1 — The OH as in NO [oʊ] Diphthong</p><p>See illustrations of the beginning and ending positions for</p><p>this sound, as well as up-close, slow motion speech. engl.io/ahd</p><p>Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.2 — The OH as in NO [oʊ] Diphthong.</p><p>Does your jaw change from more dropped to less? Do your lips round for the</p><p>ending position? What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:</p><p>What you hear (each 2 times) Is [oʊ] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?</p><p>oh [oʊ] Stressed</p><p>go [goʊ] Stressed</p><p>know [noʊ] Stressed</p><p>below [bɪˈloʊ] Stressed</p><p>oh [oʊ], oh [oʊ] Stressed, Unstressed</p><p>borrow [ˈbɑɹ oʊ] Unstressed</p><p>yellow [ˈjɛl</p>